Figure 1.

Gender-related mechanisms in sleep-disordered breathing (SDB). Stimulating pathways are depicted by arrows, protective/inhibitory effects of estrogen are denoted with a perpendicular line at the end. SDB leads to an increased risk of heart failure (HF), hypertension, endothelial dysfunction (in women), cardiovascular disease, inflammation, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and increased CaMKII activity. CaMKII-mediated SR Ca leak and Late I_Na facilitate pro-arrhythmic activity serving as trigger for atrial fibrillation (AF). Increased inflammation serves as part of the pro-arrhythmic substrate.