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. 2021 Sep 7;151(11):3555–3569. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxab273

TABLE 3.

Disparities in risk of inadequate intake of micronutrients in ECHO pregnant females based on food intake alone1

n % n % n % n % n % P
24-Hour dietary recalls, n and % at risk
Age disparities Overall 14–18 y 19–30 y 31–50 y
 % below EAR
  Vitamin A (μg/d) 1910 42% 93 53% 1031 45% 734 37% — — <0.0012
  Calcium (mg/d) 1910 34% 93 59% 1031 36% 734 30% — — <0.0012
  Copper (μg/d) 1910 24% 93 38% 1031 27% 734 18% — — <0.0012
  Magnesium (mg/d) 1910 53% 93 81% 1031 57% 734 47% — — <0.0012
  Phosphorus (mg/d) 1910 6% 93 40% 1031 7% 734 5% — — <0.0012
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 1910 43% 93 37% 1031 39% 734 50% — — <0.0012
Racial/ethnic disparities Overall Hispanic NH White NH Black Other
 % below EAR
  Vitamin A (μg/d) 1910 42% 516 49% 930 33% 290 50% 149 46% <0.0012
  Vitamin E (mg/day) 1910 73% 516 80% 930 68% 290 76% 149 73% <0.0012
  Vitamin B-6 (mg/d) 1910 17% 516 17% 930 15% 290 23% 149 3% <0.0012
  Folate, B-9 (μg/d) 1910 41% 516 47% 930 36% 290 44% 149 44% <0.0012
  Calcium (mg/d) 1910 34% 516 22% 930 8% 290 21% 149 20% <0.0012
  Copper (μg/d) 1910 24% 516 32% 930 18% 290 31% 149 23% <0.0012
  Magnesium (mg/d) 1910 53% 516 61% 930 45% 290 65% 149 56% <0.0012
  Zinc (mg/d) 1910 38% 516 42% 930 36% 290 38% 149 41% 0.25
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 1910 43% 516 34% 930 50% 290 37% 149 43% <0.0012
  Potassium (mg/d) 1909 36% 516 35% 930 42% 289 31% 149 37% <0.0012
Educational disparities Overall <HS HS or GED Some college ≥4 y degree
 % below EAR
  Vitamin A (μg/d) 1910 42% 263 53% 400 47% 417 43% 793 32% <0.0012
  Vitamin E (mg/d) 1910 73% 263 80% 400 78% 417 76% 793 64% <0.0012
  Riboflavin, B-2 (mg/d) 1910 18% 263 23% 400 19% 417 19% 793 13% <0.0012
  Vitamin B-6 (mg/d) 1910 17% 263 24% 400 16% 417 18% 793 14% <0.0012
  Calcium (mg/d) 1910 34% 263 22% 400 9% 417 19% 793 9% <0.0012
  Copper (μg/d) 1910 24% 263 33% 400 29% 417 24% 793 14% <0.0012
  Magnesium (mg/d) 1910 53% 263 66% 400 61% 417 57% 793 38% <0.0012
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 1910 43% 263 31% 400 36% 417 39% 793 56% <0.0012
  Potassium (mg/d) 1909 36% 263 24% 399 22% 417 33% 793 46% <0.0012
BMI disparities Overall Underweight Normal Overweight Obese
 % below EAR
  Vitamin A (μg/d) 1910 42% 98 38% 924 39% 460 42% 428 48% <0.0012
  Vitamin C (mg/d) 1910 49% 98 11% 924 21% 460 24% 428 30% <0.0012
  Vitamin E (mg/d) 1910 73% 98 69% 924 69% 460 74% 428 79% <0.0012
  Thiamin, B-1 (mg/d) 1910 28% 98 22% 924 26% 460 29% 428 32% <0.0012
  Vitamin B-6 (mg/d) 1910 17% 98 3% 924 15% 460 19% 428 22% <0.0012
  Folate, B-9 (μg/d) 1910 41% 98 32% 924 39% 460 43% 428 46% <0.0012
  Magnesium (mg/d) 1910 53% 98 48% 924 48% 460 53% 428 61% <0.0012
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 1910 43% 98 43% 924 49% 460 42% 428 36% <0.0012
  Potassium (mg/d) 1909 36% 98 40% 923 41% 460 35% 428 24% <0.0012
Food-frequency questionnaires
Age disparities Overall 14–18 y 19–30 y 31–50 y
 % below EAR
  Vitamin A (μg/d) 7767 31% 87 39% 3315 34% 4312 30% — — 0.14
  Calcium (mg/d) 7891 38% 89 51% 3353 38% 4396 39% — — 0.17
  Copper (μg/d) 7891 16% 89 16% 3353 17% 4396 15% — — 0.69
  Magnesium (mg/d) 7891 47% 89 63% 3353 49% 4396 49% — — 0.10
  Phosphorus (mg/d) 7891 7% 89 34% 3353 7% 4396 7% — — <0.0012
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 7696 73% 89 67% 3315 68% 4241 78% — — 0.004
Racial/ethnic disparities Overall Hispanic NH White NH Black Other
 % below EAR
  Vitamin A (μg/d) 7767 31% 1299 36% 4462 29% 1214 33% 560 33% 0.03
  Vitamin E (mg/d) 7891 69% 1314 75% 4512 66% 1253 75% 569 70% <0.001
  Vitamin B-6 (mg/d) 7891 36% 1314 38% 4512 34% 1253 41% 569 39% <0.001
  Folate, B-9 (μg/d) 7891 59% 1314 60% 4512 57% 1253 64% 569 59% <0.001
  Calcium (mg/d) 7891 38% 1314 38% 4512 35% 1253 45% 569 44% <0.0012
  Copper (μg/d) 7891 16% 1314 17% 4512 14% 1253 19% 569 15% <0.001
  Magnesium (mg/d) 7891 47% 1314 50% 4512 44% 1253 53% 569 48% <0.001
  Zinc (mg/d) 7581 37% 1314 38% 4512 34% 943 44% 569 40% <0.0012
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 7696 73% 1283 62% 4397 77% 1238 73% 535 75% <0.0012
  Potassium (mg/d) 7891 43% 1314 43% 4512 46% 1253 37% 569 38% <0.001
Educational disparities Overall <HS HS or GED Some college ≥4-y degree
 % below EAR
  Vitamin A (μg/d) 7767 31% 487 34% 1379 33% 1745 32% 4119 30% 0.14
  Vitamin E (mg/d) 7891 69% 496 72% 1394 73% 1780 72% 4176 67% 0.001
  Riboflavin, B-2 (mg/d) 7891 18% 496 16% 1394 17% 1780 18% 4176 18% 0.62
  Vitamin B-6 (mg/d) 7891 36% 496 35% 1394 36% 1780 37% 4176 36% 0.93
  Calcium (mg/d) 7891 38% 496 34% 1394 37% 1780 39% 4176 39% 0.40
  Copper (μg/d) 7891 16% 496 14% 1394 17% 1780 17% 4176 15% 0.23
  Magnesium (mg/d) 7891 47% 496 46% 1394 48% 1780 49% 4176 46% 0.24
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 7696 73% 488 62% 1379 67% 1727 71% 4059 78 <0.0012
  Potassium (mg/d) 7891 43% 496 49% 1394 45% 1780 42% 4176 42 0.21
BMI disparities Overall Underweight Normal Overweight Obese
 % below EAR
  Vitamin A (μg/d) 7767 31% 241 29% 3782 30% 1878 32% 1766 34% 0.05
  Vitamin C (mg/d) 7891 20% 244 18% 3853 20% 1907 21% 1784 21% 0.56
  Vitamin E (mg/d) 7891 69% 244 67% 3853 67% 1907 71% 1784 73% 0.02
  Thiamin, B-1 (mg/d) 7891 32% 244 27% 3853 30% 1907 32% 1784 34% 0.03
  Vitamin B-6 (mg/d) 7891 36% 244 35% 3853 34% 1907 37% 1784 39% 0.06
  Folate, B-9 (μg/d) 7891 59% 244 56% 3853 56% 1907 60% 1784 62% <0.001
  Magnesium (mg/d) 7891 47% 244 42% 3853 44% 1907 49% 1784 50% 0.06
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 7696 73% 240 72% 3770 76% 1864 71% 1724 71% 0.40
  Potassium (mg/d) 7891 43% 244 48% 3853 44% 1907 42% 1784 42% 0.39
1

AI, Adequate Intake; EAR, Estimated Average Requirement; ECHO, Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes; GED, general education degree; HS, high school diploma; NH, non-Hispanic.

2

Statistical significance defined by Bonferroni-corrected ɑ level of 0.05/19 micronutrients = 0.0026 for inadequate intake. Among statistically significant results, we consider a result relevant to public health when the proportion at risk differs by ≥10%.