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. 2021 Sep 7;151(11):3555–3569. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxab273

TABLE 4.

Disparities in risk of inadequate intake of micronutrients in ECHO pregnant females based on food intake and use of any dietary supplements1

n % n % n % n % n % P
24-Hour dietary recalls, n and % at risk
Age disparities Overall 14–18 y 19–30 y 31–50 y
 % below EAR
  Calcium (mg/d) 1427 5% 93 29% 791 6% 500 3% <0.0012
  Copper (μg/d) 1427 6% 93 17% 791 6% 500 3% <0.0012
  Magnesium (mg/d) 1427 39% 93 91% 791 47% 500 27% <0.0012
  Phosphorus (mg/d) 1427 0% 93 24% 791 0% 500 0% <0.0012
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 1427 63% 93 40% 791 51% 500 81% <0.0012
  Potassium (mg/d) 1426 37% 93 36% 790 32% 500 46% <0.0012
Racial/ethnic disparities Overall Hispanic NH White NH Black Other
 % below EAR
  Vitamin E (mg/d) 1427 17% 350 26% 731 14% 209 12% 137 29% <0.0012
  Calcium (mg/d) 1427 5% 350 11% 731 2% 209 7% 137 7% <0.0012
  Copper (μg/d) 1427 6% 350 12% 731 3% 209 5% 137 9% <0.0012
  Magnesium (mg/d) 1427 39% 350 53% 731 27% 209 65% 137 56% <0.0012
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 1427 63% 350 41% 731 74% 209 50% 137 54% <0.0012
  Potassium (mg/d) 1426 37% 350 32% 731 42% 208 29% 137 30% <0.0012
Educational disparities Overall <HS HS or GED Some college ≥4-y degree
 % below EAR
  Vitamin E (mg/d) 1427 17% 220 26% 267 18% 337 19% 602 13% <0.0012
  Calcium (mg/d) 1427 5% 220 12% 267 1% 337 9% 602 2% <0.0012
  Copper (μg/d) 1427 6% 220 13% 267 6% 337 7% 602 2% <0.0012
  Magnesium (mg/d) 1427 39% 220 67% 267 55% 337 53% 602 24% <0.0012
  Phosphorus (mg/d) 1427 0% 220 0% 267 0% 337 0% 602 0%
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 1427 63% 220 26% 267 38% 337 47% 602 83% <0.0012
  Potassium (mg/d) 1426 37% 220 25% 266 24% 337 34% 602 46% <0.0012
BMI disparities Overall Underweight Normal weight Overweight Obese
 % below EAR
  Magnesium (mg/d) 1427 39% 51 32% 731 34% 351 47% 294 57% <0.0012
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 1427 63% 51 54% 731 71% 351 57% 294 43% <0.0012
  Potassium (mg/d) 1426 37% 51 53% 730 40% 351 35% 294 27% <0.0012
Food-frequency questionnaires
Age disparities Overall 14–18 y 19–30 y 31–50 y
 % below EAR
  Calcium (mg/d) 5606 22% 87 37% 2403 23% 3065 22% 0.05
  Copper (μg/d) 4731 20% 85 21% 2134 21% 2461 18% 0.49
  Magnesium (mg/d) 4731 41% 85 57% 2134 42% 2461 41% 0.04
  Phosphorus (mg/d) 1872 1% 14 44% 443 2% 1415 1% <0.0012
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 2532 75% 18 62% 710 69% 1804 79% <0.0012
  Potassium (mg/d) 2532 53% 18 59% 710 50% 1804 54% 0.16
Racial/ethnic disparities Overall Hispanic NH White NH Black Other
 % below EAR
  Vitamin E (mg/d) 5609 22% 895 29% 2991 18% 1194 25% 363 22% <0.0012
  Calcium (mg/d) 5606 22% 895 22% 2990 19% 1193 26% 362 25% <0.001
  Copper (μg/d) 4731 20% 717 23% 2479 18% 1143 21% 226 18% 0.07
  Magnesium (mg/d) 4731 41% 717 43% 2479 36% 1143 45% 226 41% <0.001
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 2532 75% 446 64% 1546 78% 289 77% 183 81% 0.03
  Potassium (mg/d) 2532 53% 446 56% 1546 53% 289 46% 183 48% 0.03
Educational disparities Overall <HS HS or GED Some college ≥4-y degree
 % below EAR
  Vitamin E (mg/d) 5609 22% 462 29% 1164 25% 1172 24% 2779 18% <0.0012
  Calcium (mg/d) 5606 22% 462 22% 1164 23% 1170 23% 2778 22% 0.61
  Copper (μg/d) 4731 20% 426 22% 1079 21% 874 21% 2322 18% 0.14
  Magnesium (mg/d) 4731 41% 426 41% 1079 41% 874 43% 2322 40% 0.56
  Phosphorus (mg/d) 1872 1% 41 27% 146 6% 406 2% 1271 1% <0.0012
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 2532 75% 114 62% 260 62% 514 72% 1621 80% <0.0012
  Potassium (mg/d) 2532 53% 114 58% 260 50% 514 51% 1621 53% 0.77
BMI disparities Overall Underweight Normal weight Overweight Obese
 % below EAR
  Magnesium (mg/d) 4731 41% 174 35% 2406 39% 1082 44% 1037 43% 0.62
 % above AI
  Vitamin K (μg/d) 2532 75% 88 76% 1465 78% 573 71% 399 71% 0.41
  Potassium (mg/d) 2532 53% 88 51% 1465 54% 573 50% 399 52% 0.74
1

AI, Adequate Intake; EAR, Estimated Average Requirement; ECHO, Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes; GED, general education degree; HS, high school diploma; NH, non-Hispanic.

2

Statistical significance defined by Bonferroni-corrected ɑ level of 0.05/19 micronutrients = 0.0026 for inadequate intake. Among statistically significant results, we consider a result relevant to public health when the proportion at risk differs by ≥10%.