Fig. 3.

Framework for the invasion process of parasites trophically transmitted in predator–prey systems. During each stage, biological processes are occurring at different time, space and ecological scales. These processes depend upon intrinsic characteristics of the predator–prey system and the interactions between biotic and abiotic components. This framework shows the main factors that are determinant during the invasion process and may affect the host–parasite interactions within the predator–prey community and the transition to subsequent stages of invasion. The + and − symbols indicate positive and negative effects. Solid and broken lines represent direct and indirect effects, respectively. P: Parasite, DH: Definitive host, IH: Intermediate host. Lower case letters ‘a’ and ‘n’ stand for alien and native species.