FIGURE 1.

Astrocytes in response to TBI. After TBI of different severities, astrocytes are activated where they proliferate and increase in size. Astrocyte proliferation and activation lead to the formation of a protective glial scar. Several mechanisms at the molecular level accompanied astrocytic activation. Between them, increase calcium influx into astrocytes, downregulation of glutamate transporter GLT-1, the release of proinflammatory cytokines and TLR4 activation, increase p-Cx43 levels, increase AQP expression, and disruption of the blood-brain barrier that contributes to brain edema. The cartoon was made using SERVIER Medical Art templates smart.servier.com.