Table 4.
Hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of all-cause and cause-specific mortality according to self-reported unrestrained eating (sensitivity analyses: assuming 4-, 8- and 12-year latency)
| NHS | Eating anything at any time | No concern with figure change | Eating anything at any time + no concern with figure change | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| |||||||||
| 4-year latency (1998–2016) | 8-year latency (2002–2016) | 12-year latency (2006–2016) | 4-year latency (1998–2016) | 8-year latency (2002–2016) | 12-year latency (2006–2016) | 4-year latency (1998–2016) | 8-year latency (2002–2016) | 12-year latency (2006–2016) | |
| Yes vs. No | Yes vs. No | Yes vs. No c | |||||||
| All-cause mortality | |||||||||
| Cases | 20735 | 18512 | 15184 | 20914 | 18706 | 15368 | 12596 | 11299 | 9325 |
| Age-adjusted a | 1.25 (1.21–1.29) | 1.22 (1.18–1.27) | 1.20 (1.15–1.24) | 1.28 (1.25–1.32) | 1.27 (1.24–1.31) | 1.26 (1.22–1.30) | 1.44 (1.38–1.50) | 1.41 (1.34–1.47) | 1.37 (1.30–1.44) |
| Multivariable (without BMI) b | 1.03 (1.00–1.07) | 1.02 (0.98–1.06) | 1.01 (0.98–1.05) | 1.08 (1.04–1.11) | 1.08 (1.04–1.11) | 1.07 (1.04–1.11) | 1.09 (1.04–1.14) | 1.09 (1.04–1.14) | 1.08 (1.02–1.14) |
| Multivariable (without EDIH) b | 1.04 (1.01–1.07) | 1.02 (0.99–1.06) | 1.02 (0.98–1.06) | 1.09 (1.06–1.12) | 1.08 (1.05–1.12) | 1.08 (1.04–1.12) | 1.11 (1.06–1.16) | 1.10 (1.04–1.15) | 1.09 (1.03–1.15) |
| Multivariable b | 1.02 (0.98–1.05) | 1.00 (0.97–1.04) | 1.00 (0.96–1.04) | 1.07 (1.04–1.10) | 1.07 (1.04–1.10) | 1.07 (1.03–1.11) | 1.08 (1.03–1.13) | 1.07 (1.02–1.12) | 1.06 (1.01–1.12) |
| Cancer mortality | |||||||||
| Cases | 5346 | 4356 | 3057 | 5393 | 4397 | 3087 | 3318 | 2723 | 1936 |
| Age-adjusted a | 1.31 (1.23–1.39) | 1.30 (1.21–1.39) | 1.31 (1.20–1.42) | 1.23 (1.17–1.30) | 1.23 (1.16–1.31) | 1.18 (1.10–1.27) | 1.50 (1.39–1.63) | 1.52 (1.39–1.67) | 1.48 (1.33–1.65) |
| Multivariable (without BMI) b | 1.07 (1.00–1.14) | 1.07 (0.99–1.14) | 1.09 (1.00–1.18) | 1.08 (1.02–1.14) | 1.10 (1.03–1.17) | 1.06 (0.98–1.14) | 1.18 (1.08–1.28) | 1.22 (1.11–1.34) | 1.21 (1.08–1.35) |
| Multivariable (without EDIH) b | 1.08 (1.01–1.15) | 1.07 (1.00–1.15) | 1.10 (1.01–1.20) | N.09 (1.03–1.15) | 1.10 (1.03–1.17) | 1.06 (0.98–1.14) | 1.19 (1.09–1.29) | 1.22 (1.11–1.34) | 1.22 (1.08–1.36) |
| Multivariable b | 1.06 (1.00–1.13) | 1.07 (0.99–1.14) | 1.09 (1.00–1.19) | 1.08 (1.02–1.14) | 1.09 (1.02–1.16) | 1.05 (0.97–1.14) | 1.17 (1.08–1.28) | 1.22 (1.10–1.34) | 1.21 (1.08–1.36) |
| Cardiovascular disease mortality | |||||||||
| Cases | 4253 | 3748 | 3065 | 4278 | 3778 | 3081 | 2526 | 2242 | 1848 |
| Age-adjusted a | 1.11 (1.04–1.20) | 1.09 (1.01–1.18) | 1.09 (1.00–1.19) | 1.30 (1.22–1.38) | 1.28 (1.20–1.37) | 1.27 (1.18–1.37) | 1.26 (1.14–1.39) | 1.23 (1.10–1.37) | 1.23 (1.09–1.38) |
| Multivariable (without BMI) b | 0.95 (0.88–1.02) | 0.93 (0.86–1.01) | 0.95 (0.87–1.04) | 1.06 (1.00–1.13) | 1.06 (0.99–1.14) | 1.07 (0.99–1.15) | 0.95 (0.86–1.05) | 0.95 (0.85–1.06) | 0.97 (0.85–1.09) |
| Multivariable (without EDIH) b | 0.95 (0.88–1.02) | 0.93 (0.86–1.01) | 0.95 (0.87–1.04) | 1.03 (0.97–1.10) | 1.03 (0.96–1.10) | 1.04 (0.96–1.12) | 0.91 (0.82–1.02) | 0.91 (0.81–1.01) | 0.94 (0.83–1.06) |
| Multivariable b | 0.93 (0.86–1.00) | 0.92 (0.85–0.99) | 0.94 (0.86–1.03) | 1.02 (0.96–1.09) | 1.02 (0.95–1.09) | 1.03 (0.95–1.11) | 0.89 (0.80–0.99) | 0.89 (0.79–1.00) | 0.92 (0.81–1.04) |
| Respiratory disease mortality | |||||||||
| Cases | 1832 | 1621 | 1310 | 1802 | 1607 | 1310 | 1107 | 987 | 800 |
| Age-adjusted a | 1.74 (1.57–1.92) | 1.64 (1.47–1.82) | 1.52 (1.34–1.71) | 1.45 (1.32–1.60) | 1.39 (1.26–1.54) | 1.35 (1.20–1.50) | 2.05 (1.80–2.35) | 1.91 (1.66–2.21) | 1.75 (1.49–2.06) |
| Multivariable (without BMI) b | 1.21 (1.09–1.34) | 1.16 (1.04–1.30) | 1.11 (0.97–1.26) | 1.13 (1.03–1.25) | 1.10 (0.99–1.22) | 1.08 (0.96–1.21) | 1.30 (1.13–1.49) | 1.23 (1.05–1.43) | 1.16 (0.98–1.38) |
| Multivariable (without EDIH) b | 1.20 (1.08–1.33) | 1.15 (1.03–1.29) | 1.10 (0.97–1.25) | 1.20 (1.09–1.33) | 1.16 (1.04–1.29) | 1.13 (1.01–1.27) | 1.36 (1.17–1.57) | 1.27 (1.08–1.48) | 1.20 (1.01–1.43) |
| Multivariable b | 1.14 (1.03–1.27) | 1.10 (0.98–1.23) | 1.06 (0.93–1.20) | 1.17 (1.06–1.29) | 1.13 (1.01–1.25) | 1.11 (0.98–1.24) | 1.28 (1.11–1.48) | 1.20 (1.03–1.41) | 1.15 (0.97–1.38) |
| Gastrointestinal tract cancer mortality | |||||||||
| Cases | 656 | 535 | 355 | 657 | 526 | 353 | 411 | 334 | 227 |
| Age-adjusted a | 1.49 (1.26–1.76) | 1.55 (1.29–1.87) | 1.56 (1.24–1.97) | 1.20 (1.03–1.41) | 1.23 (1.03–1.47) | 1.27 (1.02–1.57) | 1.59 (1.27–1.99) | 1.67 (1.30–2.14) | 1.77 (1.32–2.39) |
| Multivariable (without BMI) b | 1.27 (1.07–1.52) | 1.34 (1.11–1.63) | 1.41 (1.11–1.78) | 1.05 (0.89–1.23) | 1.07 (0.89–1.28) | 1.11 (0.89–1.39) | 1.31 (1.03–1.66) | 1.37 (1.05–1.78) | 1.50 (1.09–2.05) |
| Multivariable (without EDIH) b | 1.30 (1.09–1.55) | 1.39 (1.14–1.68) | 1.44 (1.14–1.83) | 1.08 (0.91–1.27) | 1.10 (0.91–1.32) | 1.16 (0.92–1.45) | 1.32 (1.04–1.68) | 1.41 (1.09–1.84) | 1.54 (1.12–2.11) |
| Multivariable b | 1.27 (1.07–1.52) | 1.35 (1.12–1.64) | 1.43 (1.13–1.81) | 1.06 (0.89–1.25) | 1.08 (0.90–1.30) | 1.14 (0.91–1.43) | 1.30 (1.02–1.66) | 1.38 (1.06–1.81) | 1.53 (1.11–2.11) |
| Colorectal cancer mortality | |||||||||
| Cases | 447 | 367 | 243 | 452 | 360 | 241 | 285 | 233 | 157 |
| Age-adjusted a | 1.32 (1.07–1.63) | 1.41 (1.12–1.77) | 1.35 (1.02–1.80) | 1.22 (1.01–1.48) | 1.25 (1.01–1.54) | 1.28 (0.99–1.66) | 1.49 (1.13–1.97) | 1.56 (1.15–2.11) | 1.60 (1.10–2.31) |
| Multivariable (without BMI) b | 1.14 (0.92–1.42) | 1.23 (0.97–1.56) | 1.21 (0.91–1.63) | 1.08 (0.89–1.32) | 1.10 (0.89–1.38) | 1.14 (0.87–1.49) | 1.30 (0.97–1.74) | 1.36 (0.99–1.87) | 1.40 (0.95–2.07) |
| Multivariable (without EDIH) b | 1.16 (0.93–1.44) | 1.26 (1.00–1.60) | 1.25 (0.94–1.68) | 1.11 (0.91–1.36) | 1.16 (0.92–1.44) | 1.20 (0.92–1.58) | 1.26 (0.94–1.69) | 1.39 (1.00–1.91) | 1.43 (0.96–2.12) |
| Multivariable b | 1.14 (0.92–1.42) | 1.24 (0.98–1.58) | 1.24 (0.92–1.66) | 1.10 (0.90–1.35) | 1.14 (0.91–1.43) | 1.19 (0.91–1.57) | 1.28 (0.95–1.72) | 1.40 (1.01–1.94) | 1.45 (0.97–2.15) |
| Lung cancer mortality | |||||||||
| Cases | 1298 | 1063 | 736 | 1285 | 1047 | 737 | 805 | 667 | 470 |
| Age-adjusted a | 1.67 (1.49–1.88) | 1.71 (1.51–1.95) | 1.72 (1.47–2.01) | 1.34 (1.20–1.50) | 1.41 (1.25–1.60) | 1.32 (1.14–1.53) | 1.92 (1.65–2.25) | 2.08 (1.75–2.46) | 2.02 (1.65–2.47) |
| Multivariable (without BMI) b | 1.12 (0.99–1.27) | 1.14 (0.99–1.30) | 1.16 (0.99–1.37) | 1.11 (0.99–1.25) | 1.19 (1.05–1.35) | 1.13 (0.97–1.32) | 1.25 (1.06–1.48) | 1.36 (1.13–1.63) | 1.36 (1.09–1.70) |
| Multivariable (without EDIH) b | 1.12 (0.99–1.27) | 1.14 (0.99–1.31) | 1.18 (1.00–1.40) | 1.18 (1.05–1.33) | 1.26 (1.10–1.43) | 1.20 (1.02–1.40) | 1.31 (1.11–1.55) | 1.41 (1.18–1.70) | 1.44 (1.16–1.80) |
| Multivariable b | 1.11 (0.98–1.26) | 1.14 (0.99–1.30) | 1.17 (0.99–1.38) | 1.18 (1.04–1.32) | 1.25 (1.10–1.43) | 1.19 (1.02–1.39) | 1.30 (1.10–1.55) | 1.41 (1.17–1.70) | 1.42 (1.14–1.78) |
Abbreviations: HR, hazard ratio; CI, confidence interval; BMI, body mass index; EDIH, the empirical dietary index for hyperinsulinemia.
a
Models were controlled for age and follow-up cycle.
b
Models were controlled for the same sets of covariates as denoted in Table 2.
c
Defined as those exhibiting dietary restraint, i.e. those who reported both “not having the behavior of eating anything at any time” and “paying a great deal of attention to changes in their figure”.