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The graphical representation of our end-to-end pain estimation model. (a) The CNN model trained to learn frame-by-frame spatial features (4096D per frame) and (b) The 2-layer GRU model trained to learn per-video temporal dynamics of facial features. (c) The multivariate regression model to estimate pain intensity scores consistent with the VAS, SEN, AFF, and OPI independently and in combination [19].
