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. 2021 Nov 8;11:21889. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-00611-0

Table 1.

Characteristics of the included studies.

Author Study site Year conducted Study design Participants Age Sex (M:F) All co-infection Salmonella spp. with typhoid Salmonella spp. with non-typhoid All malaria cases Malaria without typhoid Typhoid without malaria Test for malaria Test for typhoid
Abah et al. (2019)75 Nigeria 2016 Cross-sectional study 500 Febrile patients 1–60 years 244:256 115 115 0 278 163 85 Microscopy Widal test
Achonduh-Atijegbe et al. (2016)35 Cameroon 2014 Cross-sectional study 315 Febrile children (6 months–15 years) 5.8 years (± 3.8) 157:158 14 14 193 179

S. typhi and S. paratyphi

(14)

 Microscopy, RDT, PCR Rapid diagnostic test
Afoakwah et al. (2011)76 Ghana NS Cross-sectional study 129 Patients clinically diagnosed as having malaria 5–83 years 0.58125 6 6 24 18 26 RDT Widal test
Agwu et al. (2009)36 Nigeria 2003–2004 Cross-sectional study 560 Febrile known HIV/AIDS (239 male and 321 female) patients  < 10 years (30), 11–20 (86), 21–30 (252), 31–40 (183), 41–50 (7), > 50 (2) 239:321 117 117 418 P. falciparum (301) S. typhi (73) Microscopy Widal test
Akinyemi et al. (2007)37 Nigeria 2004–2005 Cross-sectional study 235 Febrile patients 0–5 years (29), 6–15 (31), 16–30 (22), 31–45 (15), > 46 (10) 16 16 0 107 91 26 Microscopy Blood culture
Akinyemi et al. (2015)38 Nigeria 2010–2011 Cross-sectional study 135 Febrile patients NS NS 4 4 9 5

S. typhi (22), S. paratyphi

(7)

 Microscopy Blood culture
Alhassan et al. (2012)77 Nigeria NS Cross-sectional study 300 Febrile patients 0 to > 60 years 143:157 4 4 51 47 NS Microscopy Blood culture
Ali et al. (2020)39 Tanzania 2015 Cross-sectional study 149 Febrile patients Mean, 22 years; range, 1–70 62:87 1 1 7 6 0 Molecular method Molecular method
Ammah et al. (1999)40 Cameroon 1997–1998 Cross-sectional study 200 Febrile patients Mean, 28 years (± 20.1); range, 4–75 88:112 103 38 65 115 12

S. typhi (10),

S. paratyphi (5), S. typhimurium (4)

 Microscopy Widal test
Anabire et al. (2018)41 Ghana 2015 Cross-sectional study 150 Febrile children Median, 3 years (IQR, 2–8 years) 77:73 9 9 85 76; median age, 4.0 (2.0–8.0); anemia (55/76); thrombocytopenia (47/76); leukopenia (2/76); CBC S. typhi (20): median age, 6.5 (3.0–11.0); anemia (12/20); thrombocytopenia (2/20); leukopenia (0); CBC Microscopy, RDT Widal test
Anjorin et al. (2020)42 Nigeria 2016–2018 Cross-sectional study 182 Pregnant women having influenza-like illness Mean, 29.3 years; range, 18–45 34 34 34 NS Rapid diagnostic test
Aung et al. (2018)78 Myanmar 2016–2017 Prospective study 20 Patients with P. falciparum  > 16 years 19:01 1 1 20 19 NS Microscopy, RDT Blood culture
Bassat et al. (2009)79 Mozambique 2003–2007 Retrospective study 1404 Children with severe malaria  < 5 years NS 12 0 12 1404 1382 NS Microscopy Blood culture
Berkley et al. (1999)80 Kenya 1993–1996 Prospective study 783 Children with severe malaria NS 396:387 6 0 6 783 777 NS Microscopy Blood culture
Bhalla et al. (2019)43 India 2018 Cross-sectional study 607 Patients with dengue, malaria, leptospirosis, typhoid, and rickettsia diseases NS Positive cases (male, 383:224) 1 1 372 371 45 Microscopy Widal test
Bhattacharya et al. (2013)81 India 2004 Prospective study 3371 Febrile patients Mean, 24.7 years 1730 :1641 2 2 0 93 91 159 Microscopy Blood culture
Biggs et al. (2014)44 Tanzania 2006–2007 Cross-sectional study 3639 Febrile children Median 1.57 years (0.2–13.0) 1970: 1669 53 53 2195 2142 S. typhi (11), non-typhoidal Salmonella (109) Microscopy, RDT Blood culture
Birhanie et al. (2014)45 Ethiopia 2013

Cross-sectional

Study

 200 Febrile patients 24.24 ± 13.4, range 2 to > 46 120:80 13 13 73 60 25 Microscopy Widal test
Brent et al. (2006)29 Kenya 1998–2002 Prospective study 166 Non-typhoidal Salmonella Median 15 months (8–27) 54 0 54 54 0 112 ELISA Blood culture
Bronzan et al. (2007)30 Malawi 1996–2005 Cross-sectional study 1388 Severe malaria with bacteriamia Children > 6 months 37 37 1388 1351 NS Microscopy Blood culture
Chipwaza et al. (2015)46 Tanzania 2013 Cross-sectional study 370 Febrile patients 2–13 years 189:181 13 13 98 85 38 Microscopy Widal test
Chukwuma et al. (2014)82 Nigeria 2012–2013 Cross-sectional study 350 Pregnant women 5 5 0 10 5 1 Microscopy Stool culture
Edet et al. (2016)83 Nigeria 2014–2015 Cross-sectional study 100 Febrile patients 10–80 years 43:57:00 11 11 0 41 30 0 Microscopy Blood culture
Ekesiobi et al. (2017)84 Nigeria NS Cross-sectional study 256 Febrile patients 1 to > 35 years 128:128 29 25 4 202 173 9 Microscopy Stool culture
Enabulele et al. (2016)47 Nigeria NS Cross-sectional study 271 Febrile patients  > 18 years NS 5 5 193 188 24 Microscopy Widal test
Evans et al. (2004)85 Ghana NS Cross-sectional study 23 Children with severe malaria NS NS 10 0 10 23 13 19 Microscopy Blood culture
Eze et al. (2011)48 Nigeria NS Cross-sectional study 25 Malaria cases NS NS 3 3 25 22 0 NS

Widal tes

t
Falay et al. (2016)49 Democratic Republic of the Congo 2012 Cross-sectional study 16 S. typhi positive, 107 Non-typhoidal Salmonella S. typhi positive (median 96 (48–123) months), non-typhoidal Salmonella (median 24 (12–36)) S. typhi positive (7:9), non-typhoidal Salmonella (63:45) 63 5 58 0 S. typhi positive (11), non-typhoidal Salmonella (59) Microscopy, RDT Blood culture
Graham et al. (2000)17 Malawi 1996–1998 Cross-sectional study 219 Non-typhoidal Salmonella  > 6 months NS 82 82 0 144 Microscopy Blood culture
Ibrahim et al. (2019)86 Burkina Faso 2014 Cross-sectional study 283 Malaria cases Median 18 (0–85 years) 140:143 91 91 0 283 192 NS Microscopy Widal test
Igbeneghu et al. (2009)50 Nigeria NS Cross-sectional study 258 Febrile Patients NS NS 1 1 161 160 1 Microscopy Blood culture
Igharo et al. (2012)51 Nigeria NS Cross-sectional study 234 Febrile patients NS 113:121 43 43 88 45 130 Microscopy Widal test
Jalani et al. (2019)52 Pakistan 2017 Cross-sectional study 144 Febrile patients 1–10 (75), 11–20 (35), > 20 (34) 74:70 9 9 20 11 86 Microscopy Widal test
Kargbo et al. (2014)87 Sierra Leone 2013–2014 Cross-sectional study 11,069 Febrile patients 5–70 years

5245:

5824

 2101 2101 0 8849 6748 554 Microscopy Widal test
Katiyar et al. (2020)88 India 2018 Cross-sectional study 780 Malaria cases 0–80 years 425:355 122 122 0 780 658 NS Microscopy, RDT Widal test
Krumkamp et al. (2016)53 Ghana 2007–2012 Cross-sectional study 6746 Febrile patients  < 15 years 33 33 2563 2530 Non-typhoidal Salmonella (160), S. typhi (93) Microscopy Blood culture
Mabey et al. (1987)31 Gambia 1979–1984 Cross-sectional study 116 Patients with typhoidal/non-typhoidal Samonella 35 5 30 35 NS 81 Microscopy Blood culture
Maltha el al. (2014)54 Burkina Faso 2012–2013 Cross-sectional study 711 Severe malaria Median 19 (10–36) 393:318 33 12 21 711 678 0 Microscopy, RDT Blood culture
Mbuh et al. (2003)89 Nigeria 1996 Cross-sectional study 218 Febrile patients 2–59 years 118:100 1 1 0 60 59 0 Microscopy Blood culture
Mike et al. (2017)90 Nigeria 2015 Retrospective study 627 Febrile patients 1–75 years 375:252 136 136 0 233 97 49 Microscopy Widal test
Mohammed et al. (2020)91 Nigeria 2020 Cross-sectional study 429 Pregnant women 21–30 years 429 12 12 0 123 111 33 Microscopy, RDT Rapid diagnostic test
Mourembou et al. (2016)55 Gabon NS Cross-sectional study 410 Febrile patients  < 16 years 212:198 3 323 320 0 Molecular method Molecular method
Mtove et al. (2010)20 Tanzania 2008–2009 Cross-sectional study 156 Children with pathogenic bacteriamia 2 months to 14 years 34 3 31 0 S. typhi (11), non-S. Typhi (14) Microscopy, RDT Blood culture
Ndip et al. (2015)92 Cameroon 2010 Cross-sectional study 206 Febrile patients 4–80 years 12 12 0 186 174 14 Microscopy Stool culture
Nielsen et al. (2015)56 Ghana 2007–2011 Cross-sectional study 771 Malaria cases  < 15 years 1049:866 21 21 771 750 0 Microscopy Blood culture
Njolle et al. (2020)93 Cameroon 2015 Cross-sectional study 160 Febrile patients 18 months–60 years 81:79 12 9 3 31 19 Typhoid (55), non-typhoidal Salmonella (24) Microscopy Stool culture
Nwabueze et al. (2013)94 Nigeria NS Cross-sectional study 700 Pregnant women NS NS 236 236 0 512 276 NS Microscopy Widal test
Nwuzo et al. (2009)57 Nigeria 2007 Cross-sectional study 250 Febrile patients 0–70 years 123:127 14 14 33 19 S. typhi (39) RDT Blood culture
Nyein et al. (2016)58 Myanmar 2014–2015 Cross-sectional study 67 Adults with P. falciparum Adults NS 4 3 1 67 63 0 Microscopy, RDT Blood culture
Odikamnoro et al. (2018)59 Nigeria NS Cross-sectional study 350 Febrile patients All age groups 164:186 127 127 190 63 46 Microscopy Widal test
Ohanu et al. (2003)95 Nigeria 1997–1998 Cross-sectional study 270 Febrile patients 15–59 years 130:140 16 16 0 60 44 22 Microscopy Blood and stool culture
Omoya et al. (2017)96 Nigeria 2015 Cross-sectional study 170 Pregnant women 16–45 years 170 79 79 0 112 33 35 Microscopy Widal test
Onyido et al. (2014)97 Nigeria 2012 Cross-sectional study 200 Healthy individuals 1–80 years 52:148 10 10 0 50 40 11 Microscopy Widal test
Orok et al. (2016)98 Nigeria 2015 Cross-sectional study 250 Febrile patients 1–75 years 113:137 2 2 0 202 200 NS Microscopy Blood culture
Oshiokhayamhe et al. (2021)99 Nigeria NS Cross-sectional study 200 Students 18–30 years 100:100 5 5 0 10 5 25 Microscopy Widal test
Oundo et al. (2002)60 Kenya 1997–2001 Cross-sectional study 9147 Children with severe malaria Mean 22.28 months (25.3) 101 101 9248 9147 Non-typhoidal Salmonella (352) Microscopy Blood culture
Ozumba et al. (2020)100 Nigeria 2015 Cross-sectional study 200 Pregnant women  < 20 to 60 years 200 8 8 0 16 8 78 Microscopy Widal test
Pam et al. (2015)101 Nigeria 2015 Cross-sectional study 250 Pregnant women  < 20 to 60 years 250 9 9 0 16 7 68 RDT Widal test
Pam et al. (2018)61 Nigeria 2015 Cross-sectional study 200 Pregnant women  < 20 (6), 21–30 (110), 31–40 (72), 41–50 (10), 51–60 (2) All were females 9 9 25 16 86 Microscopy, RDT Widal test
Park et al. (2016)62 Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Madagascar, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, and Tanzania 2010–2014 Cross-sectional study 497 Febrile patients All age groups NS 24 9 15 0 473 Microscopy, RDT Blood culture
Phu et al. (2020)63 Vietnam 1991–2003 Cross-sectional study 845 Adult patients admitted with severe falciparum malaria  > 14 years NS 4 3 1 840 836, mean age 31 years, range 15–79 years, median parasite count 81,766/μL (12,811 to 316,512/μL) 0 Microscopy Blood culture
Popoola et al. (2019)64 Nigeria 2017 Cross-sectional study 682 Febrile patients  < 1 (7), 1–5 (217), 6–12 (189), 13–17 (61), 18–59 (198), ≥ 60 (10) 332:350 7 6 1 171 164 S. typhi (21), non-typhoidal Salmonella (5) Microscopy Molecular method
Qureshi et al. (2019)65 Pakistan 2012–2013 Cross-sectional study 1889 Febrile patients All age groups Infected cases 164:147 11 11 128 117 age 1–12 (67), 13–60 (50) 183, age 1–12 (110), 13–60 (73) Microscopy Rapid diagnostic test
Raja et al. (2016)66 India 2013–2014 Cross-sectional study 100 Febrile patients NS NS 2 2 10 8 6 Microscopy, RDT Blood culture
Ramya et al. (2017)67 India 2010–2012 Cross-sectional study 824 Malaria, typhoid, dengue cases NS NS 55 55 NS NS RDT Widal test
Sajid et al. (2017)102 Pakistan NS Cross-sectional study 300 Febrile patients 1 to > 46 years 150:150 21 21 65 44 16 Microscopy Widal test
Sale et al. (2020)103 Nigeria NS Cross-sectional study 200 Febrile patients  ≤ 10 to > 30 years 96:104 45 45 0 111 66 33 Microscopy, RDT Widal test
Samatha et al. (2015)68 India 2014–2015 Cross-sectional study 582 Febrile patients NS NS 4 4 306 302 Widal test 132, culture 7 Microscopy Blood culture
Sandlund et al. (2012)69 Sweden 1995–2009 Cross-sectional study 755 Malaria patients Mean 33.6 (15.2 years), range 1–79 years (13.68 years), range 18–77 years 01:01.0 4 4 755 751 0

Microscopy, RDT, molecular

Method

 Blood culture
Shaikh et al. (2018)70 Pakistan 2017–2018 Cross-sectional study 985 Febrile patients Malaria positive: mean 38.63 Malaria positive: 209:181 52 52 442 390 250 NS Widal test
Sharma et al. (2016)104 India 2014–2016 Cross-sectional study 3010 Febrile patients Children and adults 2260:750 48 48 0 210 162 12 Microscopy, RDT Blood culture
Singh et al. (2014)71 India 2013 Cross-sectional study 1141 Febrile patients  ≥ 12 years 618:523 1 1 147 146 92 Microscopy, RDT Blood culture
Snehanshu et al. (2014)105 India 2012–2013 Cross-sectional study 200 Febrile patients 0 to > 60 years 88:112 5 5 0 36 31 NS Microscopy Blood culture
Sur et al. (2006)106 India 2004 Prospective study 3371 Febrile patients 0 to > 70 years NS 3 3 0 93 90 92 Microscopy Blood culture
Tabu et al. (2012)72 Kenya 2006–2009 Cross-sectional study 3578 Febrile (60 non-typhoidal Salmonella investigated for malaria) NS NS 12 12 NS NS Non-typhoidal Salmonella (48) Microscopy Blood culture
Tchuandom et al. (2018)73 Cameroon 2016–2017 Cross-sectional study 961 Febrile patients  ≤ 15 years, mean 7.1 (2.9 years) 495:466 6 6 396 390 22 RDT RDT
Ukaegbu et al. (2014)107 Nigeria NS Cross-sectional study 300 Febrile patients 0 to > 60 years 117:183 9 9 0 162 153 NS Microscopy Stool culture
Vats et al. (2018)108 India NS Cross-sectional study 300 Febrile patients 1–60 years 206:94 3 3 0 31 28 9 Microscopy Blood culture
Verma et al. (2014)74 India 2012 Cross-sectional study 800 Febrile patients NS NS 9 9 NS NS NS Microscopy, RDT Blood culture
Walsh et al. (2000)27 Malawi 1996–1997 Cross-sectional study 128 Non-typhoidal Salmonella 0–13 years NS 32 0 32 32 NS 96 Microscopy Blood culture
Were et al. (2011)28 Kenya 2004–2006 Cross-sectional study 585 Children with P. falciparum 1–36 months 295:290 24 0 24 585 561 NS Microscopy Blood culture

ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, NS not specified, RDT rapid diagnostic test.