Table 3.

The common therapeutic strategies and disadvantages for the DM and its complications.

Disease	Therapy	Treatment principle	Adverse effect	Reference
T1DM	Insulin	Exogenous insulin improves glucose metabolism	Substandard dose control can induce hypoglycemia, ketoacidosis	(82)
T2DM	Insulin	Exogenous insulin improves glucose metabolism	Substandard dose control induces hypoglycemia, ketoacidosis	(82)
	Metformin	Improving peripheral tissue glucose uptake	Gastrointestinal tract response	(83)
	Sulfonylureas/meglitinides	Stimulating insulin secretion	Hypoglycemia, hypoleucocytosis, hemolytic anemia, increased risk of major cardiovascular events, weight gain	(84, 85)
	DPP-4 inhibitors/GLP-1/GIP receptor agonist	Stimulating insulin secretion, suppressing glucagon secretion, slowing gastric emptying, increasing β-cell mass and function	Renal impairment, hypoglycemia	(86–90)
	α-Glucosidase inhibitor	Delaying food decomposition, enhancing GLP-1 secretion	Flatulence, diarrhea	(91–94)
Diabetic cardiomyopathy	Antianginal therapy, percutaneous intervention, surgical revascularization	Reduce myocardial fibrosis, revascularization	Surgical risk, little benefit, other risk factors	(95, 96)

DM, diabetes mellitus; T1DM, type 1 diabetes mellitus; T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus.