TABLE 3.
Regression results by utilization and spending categories
| Utilization | Acute hospital admissions (SE) | Days in hospital (SE) | Emergency department visits (SE) | Specialist visits (SE) | Primary care visits (SE) | Drug prescriptions (SE) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baseline utilization | ||||||
| Australia | 0.41 (0.24) . | 6.05 (3.73) | 0.04 (0.16) | 2.79 (1.7) | 0.02 (1.96) | 1.98 (1.07) . |
| Canada | 1.17 (0.15)*** | 16.3 (2.27)*** | 0.22 (0.09)* | 1.37 (1.03) | 1.65 (0.62)** | 5.6 (0.65)*** |
| England | 1.27 (0.15)*** | 8.99 (2.27)*** | 0.1 (0.09) | 1.79 (1.03) . | 1.05 (0.62) . | 6.53 (0.65)*** |
| Germany | 1.32 (0.15)*** | 16.43 (2.27)*** | ‐ | 0.29 (1.03) | 0.05 (0.62) | 2.8 (0.65)*** |
| New Zealand | 0.6 (0.15)*** | 5.45 (2.27)* | 0 (0.09) | 0.28 (1.03) | ‐ | 7.72 (0.65)*** |
| Spain | 0.89 (0.15)*** | 22.98 (2.27)*** | 1.14 (0.09)*** | 3.2 (1.03)** | 1.12 (0.62) . | 3.93 (0.65)*** |
| United States | 1.17 (0.24)*** | 11.27 (3.73)** | 0.4 (0.16)* | 2.1 (1.7) | 0.18 (1.01) | 4.47 (1.07)*** |
| Sex effect (female = 1) | ||||||
| Australia | −0.09 (0.17) | −1.45 (2.64) | −0.07 (0.111) | 2.18 (1.202) . | −0.77 (0.719) | −0.57 (0.756) |
| Canada | −0.06 (0.1) | −3.11 (1.55)* | 0.07 (0.065) | −0.23 (0.703) | 0.6 (0.42) | 0.82 (0.442) . |
| England | 0.12 (0.1) | −0.46 (1.55) | 0 (0.065) | −0.83 (0.703) | 0.66 (0.42) | 1.11 (0.442)* |
| Germany | −0.09 (0.1) | −2.52 (1.55) | ‐ | −0.36 (0.703) | −0.01 (0.42) | 0.35 (0.442) |
| New Zealand | −0.25 (0.1)* | −2.27 (1.55) | −0.03 (0.065) | −0.21 (0.703) | ‐ | −0.56 (0.442) |
| Spain | 0.01 (0.1) | −8.87 (1.55)*** | 0.07 (0.065) | 0.78 (0.703) | 1.28 (0.42)** | 1.17 (0.442)** |
| United States | −0.15 (0.17) | −2.03 (2.64) | −0.05 (0.111) | −0.41 (1.202) | −0.02 (0.719) | 0.07 (0.756) |
| Age effect | ||||||
| Australia | −0.04 (0.02) . | −0.38 (0.39) | 0.01 (0.02) | −1.122 (0.18)*** | 0.017 (0.02) | −0.11 (0.11) |
| Canada | −0.1 (0.02)*** | −1.71 (0.39)*** | −0.05 (0.02)** | −0.294 (0.18) . | −0.185 (0.11) . | −0.13 (0.11) |
| England | −0.16 (0.02)*** | 0.18 (0.39) | −0.015 (0.02) | −0.358 (0.18)* | −0.065 (0.11) | −0.45 (0.11)*** |
| Germany | −0.11 (0.02)*** | −1.76 (0.39)*** | ‐ | −0.019 (0.18) | 0.024 (0.11) | −0.1 (0.11) |
| New Zealand | 0.01 (0.02) | −0.1 (0.39) | 0 (0.02) | −0.034 (0.18) | ‐ | 0.07 (0.11) |
| Spain | 0.01 (0.02) | −1.46 (0.39)*** | −0.071 (0.02)*** | −0.534 (0.18)** | −0.145 (0.11) | 0.06 (0.11) |
| United States | −0.09 (0.02)*** | −1.03 (0.39)** | −0.048 (0.02)** | −0.439 (0.18)* | −0.059 (0.11) | −0.44 (0.11)*** |
| Time effect | ||||||
| Australia | 0.009 (0.001)*** | 0.06 (0.02)** | 0.001 (0.001) | 0.041 (0.01)*** | 0.044 (0.006)*** | 0.034 (0.006)*** |
| Canada | 0.006 (0.001)*** | 0.11 (0.01)*** | 0.004 (0.001)*** | 0.025 (0.006)*** | 0.05 (0.003)*** | 0.042 (0.004)*** |
| England | 0.011 (0.001)*** | 0.13 (0.01)*** | 0.002 (0.001)** | 0.02 (0.006)*** | 0.037 (0.003)*** | 0.043 (0.004)*** |
| Germany | 0.008 (0.001)*** | 0.13 (0.01)*** | ‐ | 0.018 (0.006)** | 0.015 (0.003)*** | 0.048 (0.004)*** |
| New Zealand | 0.007 (0.001)*** | 0.06 (0.01)*** | 0.001 (0.001) . | 0.006 (0.006) | ‐ | 0.047 (0.004)*** |
| Spain | 0.004 (0.001)*** | 0.09 (0.01)*** | 0.007 (0.001)*** | 0.027 (0.006)*** | 0.054 (0.003)*** | 0.03 (0.004)*** |
| United States | 0.006 (0.001)*** | 0.04 (0.02)* | 0.004 (0.001)*** | 0.029 (0.01)** | 0.013 (0.006)* | 0.047 (0.006)*** |
| Root mean squared error | 0.30 | 4.76 | 0.20 | 2.17 | 1.31 | 1.36 |
| Adjusted R‐squared | 0.96 | 0.93 | 0.92 | 0.67 | 0.93 | 0.98 |
| Spending in US$ PPP | Hospital spending (SE) | Emergency department spending (SE) | Specialist spending (SE) | Primary care spending (SE) | Drug spending (SE) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baseline utilization | |||||
| Australia | 12,681 (2593.5)*** | 31.9 (46.4) | 198.5 (279.7) | 117.9 (76.4) | 496.9 (263.5) . |
| Canada | 21,305 (1578.3)*** | 73.6 (28.2)** | 152.8 (170.2) | 102.2 (46.5)* | 403.1 (160.4)* |
| England | 8062 (1578.3)*** | 56.7 (28.2)* | 288.6 (170.2) . | 99.4 (46.5)* | 93.2 (160.4) |
| Germany | 17,322 (1578.3)*** | ‐ | 265.3 (170.2) | −67.8 (46.5) | 619.1 (160.4)*** |
| New Zealand | 5350 (1578.3)*** | 16 (28.2) | 82 (170.2) | ‐ | 143.6 (160.4) |
| Spain | 3837 (1578.3)* | 244.7 (28.2)*** | 374.6 (170.2)* | 50.6 (46.5) | 215.3 (160.4) |
| United States | 22,508 (2593.5)*** | 519.9 (46.4)*** | 1977.4 (279.7)*** | 226.1 (76.4)** | 1130.6 (263.5)*** |
| Sex effect (female = 1) | |||||
| Australia | −2811 (1836.9) | −25.6 (32.8) | 213.2 (198.1) | −45.4 (54.1) | 2.1 (186.7) |
| Canada | −3618 (1074.4)*** | 16.9 (19.2) | −1.6 (115.9) | 96.2 (31.6)** | −26.5 (109.2) |
| England | −1223 (1074.4) | 0.6 (19.2) | −55.2 (115.9) | 25.4 (31.6) | 92.3 (109.2) |
| Germany | −2963 (1074.4)** | ‐ | −56.5 (115.9) | 24.2 (31.6) | 70.8 (109.2) |
| New Zealand | −2044 (1074.4) . | −10.2 (19.2) | −49.2 (115.9) | ‐ | −65.1 (109.2) |
| Spain | −771 (1074.4) | 15 (19.2) | 75.2 (115.9) | 90.8 (31.6)** | 131.6 (109.2) |
| United States | −4030 (1836.9)* | −60.8 (32.8) . | −393.4 (198.1)* | 20.1 (54.1) | −156.1 (186.7) |
| Age effect | |||||
| Australia | −1152.6 (268.6)*** | 1.8 (4.8) | −87.4 (29)** | −4.9 (7.9) | −137.2 (27.3)*** |
| Canada | −2214 (268.6)*** | −14.2 (4.8)** | −33.5 (29) | −11.3 (7.9) | −105.9 (27.3)*** |
| England | −215.6 (268.6) | −7.2 (4.8) | −66.2 (29)* | −14.8 (7.9) . | −35.3 (27.3) |
| Germany | −1981.8 (268.6)*** | ‐ | −58.9 (29)* | 13.7 (7.9) . | −160 (27.3)*** |
| New Zealand | −57.9 (268.6) | −0.8 (4.8) | −14 (29) | ‐ | −15.4 (27.3) |
| Spain | 1184 (268.6)*** | −15.2 (4.8)** | −49.5 (29) . | −2.9 (7.9) | −55.3 (27.3)* |
| United States | −1925.1 (268.6)*** | −68.2 (4.8)*** | −434.6 (29)*** | −77.9 (7.9)*** | −266.3 (27.3)*** |
| Time effect | |||||
| Australia | 80.3 (14.9)*** | 0.5 (0.3) . | 4.1 (1.6)* | 1.9 (0.4)*** | 6.2 (1.5)*** |
| Canada | 105.7 (8.7)*** | 1.3 (0.2)*** | 2.8 (0.9)** | 3.1 (0.3)*** | 8.4 (0.9)*** |
| England | 61.6 (8.7)*** | 0.8 (0.2)*** | 3.7 (0.9)*** | 1.5 (0.3)*** | 7.4 (0.9)*** |
| Germany | 81.3 (8.7)*** | ‐ | 3.3 (0.9)*** | 3.2 (0.3)*** | 8.9 (0.9)*** |
| New Zealand | 52.9 (8.7)*** | 0.1 (0.2) | 1 (0.9) | ‐ | 3.1 (0.9)*** |
| Spain | 48.7 (8.7)*** | 1.6 (0.2)*** | 2.6 (0.9)** | 3.2 (0.3)*** | 5.7 (0.9)*** |
| United States | 77.2 (14.9)*** | 4.8 (0.3)*** | 15.2 (1.6)*** | 5.1 (0.4)*** | 12.7 (1.5)*** |
| Root mean squared error | 3311.5 | 59.7 | 357.1 | 98.2 | 336.5 |
| Adjusted R‐squared | 0.96 | 0.97 | 0.84 | 0.93 | 0.88 |
Note: “‐” utilization/spending category not available in this country; significance codes: “***” = 0.001, “**” = 0.01, “*” = 0.05, “.” = 0.1.
Abbreviation: SE, standard errors.