Table 2.
Summary characteristics in a scoping review of articles that evaluated workplace wellness programs, included measures of return on investment, and were published before December 20, 2019 (n = 47)
| Article (publication year) | Journal | Program content | Program duration, y | Country | Company/industry | Size of company | ROI formula in article (unit) | Provided ROI (statistical inference) | Recalculated ROI | Index |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Randomized studies (n = 16) | ||||||||||
| Barbosa et al (2015) 45 | Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (JOEM) | Wellness | 1.5 | United States | Information technology firm | Large | (Benefit – Cost)/Cost (ratio) | 1.68 (–8.85 to 9.47) | 1.68 | 18.00 |
| Jones et al (2019) 46 | Quarterly Journal of Economics | Wellness | 2.5 | United States | University of Illinois | Large | Benefit/Cost | 2.61 | 1.61 | 16.34 |
| Oude Hengel et al (2014) 47 | American Journal of Industrial Medicine | Wellness | 1 | Netherlands | 6 construction companies (house, commercial, or industrial building) | NA | [(Benefit – Cost)/Cost] x 100 (percentage) | 543 | 5.43 | 15.67 |
| van Dongen et al (2016) 48 | JOEM | Wellness | 1 | Netherlands | 2 Dutch government institutes | Large | [(Benefit – Cost)/Cost] x 100 (percentage) | –351 (–919 to 210) | –3.52 | 15.67 |
| van Dongen et al (2017) 43 | Health Education Research | Wellness | 1 | Netherlands | Financial service provider | Large | [(Benefit – Cost)/Cost] x 100 (percentage) | –666 (–1266 to –20) | –6.66 | 15.50 |
| Song and Baicker (2019) 49 | Journal of the American Medical Association | Wellness | 1.5 | United States | A warehouse retail company | Large | NA | NA | NA | 15.34 |
| Groeneveld et al (2011) 50 | JOEM | Wellness | 1 | Netherlands | Construction industry—15 plants | Large | NA | NA | –0.49 | 15.33 |
| van Dongen et al (2013) 51 | JOEM | Wellness | 2 | Netherlands | 2 Dutch academic hospitals | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | –2.21 | –3.83 | 15.00 |
| Noben et al (2015) 52 | International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health | Wellness | 0.5 | Netherlands | A Dutch academic hospital | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 11 | 6.13 | 14.67 |
| Thiart et al (2016) 53 | Sleep | Disease management | 0.5 | Germany | School teachers | NA | [(Benefit – Cost)/Cost] x 100 (percentage) | 208.81 (–296 to 744) | 2.09 | 14.33 |
| Proper et al (2004) 54 | Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment, and Health | Wellness | 3 | Netherlands | 3 municipal services of a Dutch town | Large | NA | NA | 0.19 | 14.00 |
| van Holland et al (2018) 42 | Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation | Wellness | 3 | Netherlands | Dutch meat processing company | Large | [(Benefit – Cost)/Cost] x 100 (percentage) | –1160 (−1415 to −918) | –11.61 | 14.00 |
| Robroek et al (2012) 55 | Health Education Research | Wellness | 2 | Netherlands | 2 health care organizations, 2 commercial services, 2 government branches | Large | NA | NA | NA | 13.67 |
| Steinberg et al (2015) 56 | JOEM | Wellness | 1 | United States | Aetna | Large | NA | NA | NA | 13.00 |
| Meenan et al (2010) 4 | JOEM | Wellness | 3 | United States | Oahu, Hawaii, hotel workers | Large | NA | NA | –0.95 | 12.67 |
| Milani and Lavie (2009) 57 | American Journal of Cardiology | Disease management | 1 | United States | A single employer, 2 locations | NA | NA | 6 | NA | 9.33 |
| Quasi-experimental studies (n = 4) | ||||||||||
| Grossmeier et al (2013) 58 | JOEM | Disease management and wellness | 3 | United States | BP America US employees | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 3 | 2 | 13.08 |
| Ozminkowski et al (1999) 59 | American Journal of Health Promotion (AJHP) | Wellness | 3 | United States | Citibank | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 4.73 | 3.73 | 12.58 |
| Musich et al (2015) 20 | AJHP | Disease management and wellness | 4 | United States | Dell | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 2.48 | 1.48 | 12.58 |
| Serxner et al (2012) 60 | AJHP | Disease management and wellness | 5 | United States | A large financial services corporation | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 2.45 | 1.45 | 12.08 |
| Observational cohort studies with control group (n = 3) | ||||||||||
| Liu et al (2013) 61 | Population Health Management | Disease management and wellness | 5 | United States | PepsiCo | Large | NA | NA | NA | 13.34 |
| Liu et al (2013) 62 | Inquiry | Disease management and wellness | 6 | United States | PepsiCo | Large | NA | NA | NA | 13.34 |
| Light et al (2015) 63 | JOEM | Disease management and wellness | 5 | United States | Price Cooper, Golub Corporation (large retail grocery chain) | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 4.33 | 3.33 | 13 |
| Observational case studies with comparison group (n = 16) | ||||||||||
| Nyman et al (2012) 5 | Medical Care | Disease management and wellness | 5 | United States | University of Minnesota | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 1.76 | 0.76 | 12.58 |
| Kapinos et al (2015) 64 | JOEM | Disease management and wellness | 9 | United States | A large firm | Large | NA | NA | NA | 12.25 |
| Jutkowitz et al (2015) 65 | JOEM | Disease management and wellness | 6 | United States | University of Minnesota | Large | NA | NA | NA | 12.08 |
| Michaud et al (2016) 66 | JOEM | Disease management and wellness | 3 | United States | University of Minnesota | Large | NA | NA | NA | 12 |
| Naydeck et al (2008) 67 | JOEM | Wellness | 4 | United States | Highmark | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 1.65 | 0.65 | 11.75 |
| Nyman et al (2013) 68 | JOEM | Disease management and wellness | 5 | United States | University of Minnesota | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 1.63 | 0.63 | 11.75 |
| Yen et al (2010) 12 | International Journal of Workplace Health Management | Wellness | 9 | United States | Midwest utility company | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 1.66 | 0.66 | 11.25 |
| Caloyeras et al (2014) 69 | Health Affairs | Disease management and wellness | 10 | United States | PepsiCo | Large | No information | 1.46 | NA | 11.08 |
| Nyman et al (2010) 70 | JOEM | Disease management and wellness | 2 | United States | University of Minnesota | Large | Benefit – Cost (US dollars) | –625 947 | –0.13 | 10.42 |
| Goetzel et al (1998) 71 | JOEM | Wellness | 3 | United States | Cincinnati headquarters of Procter & Gamble Company | Large | NA | NA | NA | 10.25 |
| Schultz et al (2002) 72 | JOEM | Wellness | 6 | United States | 2 manufacturing plants in the Midwest | Large | (Benefit – Cost)/Cost (ratio) | 1.3 | 1.27 | 9.92 |
| Serxner et al (2003) 73 | JOEM | Wellness | 1 | United States | DaimlerChrysler AG 14 worksites | Large | NA | NA | NA | 9.92 |
| Bertera (1990) 74 | American Journal of Public Health | Wellness | 3 | United States | Large multi-location (60 sites) diversified industrial company | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 1.42 | 0.42 | 9.75 |
| Griffin et al (2016) 75 | Injury Prevention | Wellness | 4 | United States | Tucson fire department | Small | [(Benefit – Cost)/Cost] x 100 (percentage) | 2.4 | 0.02 | 9.42 |
| Mattke et al (2009) 76 | American Journal of Managed Care | Disease management and wellness | 5 | Not reported | 2 large employers in the consumer goods industry | Large | NA | NA | NA | 8.75 |
| Abraham et al (2012) 77 | JOEM | Wellness | 3 | United States | University of Minnesota | Large | NA | NA | NA | 8.08 |
| Observational studies without comparison group (n = 8) | ||||||||||
| Bowne et al (1984) 78 | JOEM | Wellness | 5 | United States | Southwestern home office/Houston | Large | (Benefit – Cost)/Cost (ratio) | 1.93 | 1.93 | 9.33 |
| Baker et al (2008) 9 | JOEM | Disease management | 1 | United States | American Specialty Health, Inc, multiple workplaces (119 companies) | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 1.17 | 0.17 | 9.33 |
| Bevis et al (2014) 79 | JOEM | Disease management and wellness | 3 | United States | Major employer in Orlando area | Large | NA | NA | NA | 8 |
| Iijima et al (2013) 80 | Industrial Health | Wellness | 1 | Japan | 11 companies (6 wholesale dealers, 3 transportation, and 2 production) | Large | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 1.55 | 0.55 | 7.67 |
| Golaszewski et al (1992) 81 | Journal of Occupational Medicine | Wellness | 15 | United States | Travelers insurance company | Large | (Benefit – Cost)/Cost (ratio) | 2.4 | 2.43 | 7.67 |
| Palumbo et al (2013) 82 | Workplace Health and Safety | Wellness | 2 | United States | 1 hospital unit | Small | Benefit – Cost (US dollars) | 3747 | 0.49 | 7.67 |
| Ozminkowski et al (2002) 83 | JOEM | Disease management and wellness | 9.5 | United States | Johnson & Johnson | Large | NA | NA | NA | 7.67 |
| Maniscalco et al (1999) 84 | JOEM | Wellness | 5 | United States | The Lafayette Offshore Business Unit/Louisiana | Small | Benefit/Cost (ratio) | 2.51 | 1.51 | 5 |
| Summary of frequencies | 23 JOEM 3 AJHP |
3 disease management, 28 wellness, 16 disease management and wellness | 29 three-year and above | 36 in United States, 9 in Netherlands, 1 in Germany, 1 in Japan | 24 explicitly defined whose program was evaluated | 3 small, 44 large | 2 net benefit 16 benefit to cost 10 net benefit to cost |
5 statistical information | 31 recalculated ROI value for analysis sample | |
Abbreviations: NA, not available; ROI, return on investment.