Table 4.
Mean effects of article characteristics on recalculated ROI for articles that had ROI measures for workplace wellness program evaluations and were included in a scoping review of articles that evaluated workplace wellness programs, included ROI measures, and were published before December 20, 2019 a (N = 31) b
| Article characteristics | Model 1 β (SE) [P value c ] |
Model 2 β (SE) [P value c ] |
Model 3 β (SE) [P value c ] |
Model 4 β (SE) [P value c ] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Costs for absenteeism only d | –0.70 (2.83) [.81] | 0.43 (2.48) [.86] | 0.62 (1.87) [.74] | 1.02 (1.70) [.56] |
| Costs for health care and absenteeism e | –2.09 (2.90) [.48] | –1.17 (2.51) [.65] | –0.56 (1.91) [.77] | –0.30 (1.72) [.87] |
| Costs for any presenteeism d ,e | –3.66 (2.37) [.14] | –4.79 (2.08) [.03] | –1.49 (1.61) [.37] | –2.50 (1.52) [.12] |
| Disease management program only f | 1.11 (2.63) [.68] | 1.55 (2.25) [.50] | 0.60 (1.71) [.73] | 0.89 (1.53) [.57] |
| Disease management and wellness programs f | 1.99 (2.72) [.047] | 1.25 (2.34) [.60] | 0.35 (1.79) [.85] | 0.16 (1.60) [.92] |
| Evaluation duration (≥3 y) g | –2.14 (2.05) [.31] | –2.16 (1.74) [.23] | –0.14 (1.45) [.92] | –0.51 (1.30) [.70] |
| Publication year (2000-2010) h | –2.45 (2.43) [.33] | –1.34 (2.14) [.54] | –1.75 (1.58) [.29] | –1.21 (1.46) [.42] |
| Publication year (2011-2014) h | –3.81 (3.06) [.23] | –2.87 (2.63) [.29] | –1.65 (2.05) [.43] | –1.42 (1.85) [.45] |
| Publication year (2015-2019) h | –2.83 (3.26) [.40] | 0.46 (3.03) [.88] | 0.49 (2.21) [.83] | 1.95 (2.10) [.37] |
| Conflict of interest | 0.16 (2.31) [.95] | –0.89 (2.02) [.67] | 0.62 (1.49) [.68] | –0.05 (1.38) [.97] |
| Programs in a small company i | 0.35 (3.25) [.92] | –2.57 (2.95) [.40] | –0.78 (2.10) [.72] | –2.38 (2.00) [.25] |
| Quality index j | 0.05 (0.39) [.90] | – b | 0.02 (0.25) [.93] | – b |
| Reporting domain | – b | –3.69 (1.39) [.02] | – b | –2.13 (1.00) [.049] |
| Internal validity domain | – b | 0.62 (0.46) [.20] | – b | 0.34 (0.32) [.31] |
| Constant | 5.59 (4.20) [.20] | 5.69 (3.60) [.13] | 2.13 (2.88) [.47] | 2.78 (2.62) [.31] |
| Number of observations k | 31 | 31 | 29 | 29 |
Abbreviations: ROI, return on investment; SE, standard error.
aThe dependent variable for these ordinary least squares regression models is positive ROI, which is 1 if recalculated ROI is positive and 0 otherwise.
bModels 1 and 3 included average quality index scores (the sum of scores for reporting, internal validity, external validity, and power domains). Models 2 and 4 examined the effects of the 2 domains that contribute most to the score for quality index, controlling for reporting and internal validity domains separately and leaving out the summed quality index score because of collinearity.
cUsing the t test, with P < .05 considered to be significant.
dThe base category is only health care cost.
eThis component includes combinations of costs that include presenteeism.
fThe base category is “only wellness program.”
gEvaluation duration is 1 if the study period is ≥3 years.
hThe base category is publication year before 2000.
iSmall is 1 if the company has ≤500 employees.
jInternal validity, reporting, and quality index scores were demeaned (ie, sample mean subtracted from each observation).
kTwo outliers were excluded in the sample for Models 3 and 4.