Table 2.
Summary of methods, main findings and ranges of variation reported in different studies dealing with social and psychological correlates of OXT.
| Research topic | Author | Fluid measured | Detection technique | Validated protocol | Main findings | Approximate range of variation of OXT (Units may differ) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OXT and maternal/parental behavior | Levine et al. (2007) | Plasma | EIA | Kramer et al. (2004) | Increase in OXT throughout pregnancy. This ascending pattern is associated with a greater maternal-fetal bond. | 45–550 pg/ml |
| Feldman et al. (2007) | Plasma | EIA | Kramer et al. (2004) | OXT levels at the postpartum strongly predicted maternal behavior in association with other variables such as attachment representations and maternal preoccupation. | 50–550 pM | |
| Nishizato et al. (2017) | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | OXTs have a prominent effect on social stimulus attention in younger infants. | 70–350 pg/ml | |
| Rybicka et al. (2021) | Saliva | RIA | Neumann et al. (2013) | Women's OXT level rises in response to a doll's cry. | NR | |
| Moussa et al. (2021) | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | Increase in salivary OXT in mothers and their children with a healthy bond, when the mothers gave them a massage. | 10–360 pg/ml | |
| Gordon et al. (2010) | Plasma | EIA | Kramer et al. (2004) | OXT predicts proximity, touch, and gaze behavior in mother-father-infant ecological interactions. | 200–500 pg/ml | |
| Gettler et al. (2021) | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | Fathers who had both an increase in salivary OXT and a decrease in testosterone at the time of holding the infant on the first day of birth, showed postpartum bonding behaviors. | 70–100 pg/ml | |
| Nawa et al. (2020) | Saliva | ELISA | Feldman et al. (2014) | Maternal psychological distress and trauma related to the experience of a natural disaster were negatively associated with increased levels of OXT, after a playful interaction. | 8–12 pg/mg salivary protein | |
| Light et al. (2000) | Plasma | RIA | Amico et al. (1985) | The mothers' contact with their babies, after having been subjected to a stress-inducing protocol, generated an increase in OXT and a decrease in blood pressure. | NR | |
| Lebowitz et al. (2016) | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | There was a negative correlation between levels of familiar adjustment to support the youth with anxiety symptoms and the reduction of OXT levels in this population. | 0–70 pg/ml | |
| OXT and romantic attachment | de Jong et al. (2015) | Saliva | RIA | de Jong et al. (2015) | OXT levels are increased significantly with respect to basal measurements after running, sexual self-stimulation and the stress induced task, but not in response to breastfeeding. | 0–30 pg/ml |
| Weisman et al. (2013) | Plasma | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | Men showed significantly higher mean OXT than women. Higher OXT in women correlated with greater attachment anxiety. | 100–800 pg/ml | |
| Marazziti et al. (2006) | Plasma | RIA | Marazziti et al. (2006) | Attachment anxiety and OXT are positively associated in romantic bond. | 0,13–4,59 pg/ml | |
| Schneiderman et al. (2012) | Plasma | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | OXT was significantly higher in new lovers compared to singles and correlated with the couples' interactive reciprocity. | 250–509 pg/ml | |
| Ditzen et al. (2007) | Plasma | RIA | Landgraf et al. (1995) | Women with positive physical partner contact before stress induction, exhibited significantly lower cortisol and heart rate responses to stress but plasma OXT levels did not change. | NR | |
| Gonzaga et al. (2006) | Plasma | RIA | Demitrack et al. (1990); Weitzman, Glatz, and Fisher, (1978) | In the context of an auto-biographic emotional evocation task that included affiliation cues and sexual cues, only the former correlated positively with OXT. | NR | |
| OXT and stress response | Opacka-Juffry & Mohiyeddini. (2012) | Plasma | ELISA | As described by the manufacturer | High levels of stressful situations during adolescence are related with lower levels of OXT in plasma during adulthood. OXT had a negative relationship with the presence of psychological disorders as depression and anxiety. | 78,6–1198 pg/ml |
| Thomas & Larkin. (2020) | Plasma | ELISA | NR | Patients diagnosed with major depressive disorder had lower levels of OXT compared with a control group. There was no correlation between oxytocin and cortisol. | 20–420 pg/ml | |
| Kuchenbecker et al. (2021) | Saliva | ELISA | As described by the manufacturer | Increased academic stress was associated with higher levels of OXT in female college students. | 0–35 pg/ml | |
| McQuaid et al. (2016) | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | There was a negative correlation between salivary OXT and cortisol in plasma, in women who were submitted to a social stress protocol. | 5–13 pg/ml | |
| Bernhard et al. (2018) | Saliva | RIA | de Jong et al., (2015) | Participants who underwent a social stress protocol had a moderate correlation between salivary OXT and cortisol, as well as negative correlations between OXT and anxiety and insecurity. | 1,3–2,7 pg/ml | |
| Glenk et al. (2020) | Plasma | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | Allergy sufferers had higher basal levels of OXT than non-allergy sufferers. After undergoing a social stress protocol there were no significant intra- or intergroup statistical changes. | 700–1400 pg/ml | |
| Chiodera et al. (1991) | Plasma | RIA | NR | Increase of OXT and a synchronic reduction of ACTH and cortisol, which had a similar pattern but appeared earlier in lactating women compared to no-lactating women who received breast stimulation. | 2–15 pmol/l | |
| OXT and psychopathology | Turner et al. (1999) | Plasma | RIA | Demitrack et al. (1990), Weitzman et al. (1978) | Women who showed increased OXT levels for positive emotions and massages, and who maintained OXT levels during negative emotions reported less interpersonal problems associated with intrusiveness. | 4-5,6 pg/ml |
| Levy et al. (2015) | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | An inverse correlation was found between salivary OXT levels and Callous unemotional behaviors | 0,36–14,14 pg/ml | |
| Fujisawa et al. (2014) | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | Levels of oxytocin in saliva are positively associated to the gaze fixation time of images containing people interacting and showing emotions in children with normal development. In contrast, autistic children do not show the same correlation. | 15–70 pg/ml | |
| Lebowitz et al. (2019). | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | Higher levels of salivary OXT were associated with negative social bonds and in turn with suicidal ideation | 4,5–75,8 pg/ml | |
| Rubin et al. (2013) | Plasma | EIA | Carter et al. (2007) | Peripheral vasopressin but not OXT relates to severity of acute psychosis in women with acutely-ill untreated first-episode psychosis. | 100–1000 pg/ml | |
| Others stimulus associated to OXT secretion | Procyshyn et al. (2020) | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | After exposing to an empathy inducing video about the story of a gravely ill child, high OXT responders had greater levels of empathy. | 80–160 pg/ml |
| Bellosta-Batalla et al. (2020) | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | A brief mindfulness session induced an increase in salivary OXT. | 140–230 pg/ml | |
| Rassovsky et al. (2019) | Saliva | ELISA | As described by the manufacturer | There was a significant increase in salivary OXT immediately after a high-intensity Jujitsu training. Effect was stronger in response to close tactile contact interaction during the practice. | 27–58 pg/ml | |
| Tarumi and Shinohara (2020) | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | There was a significant increase of OXT after smelling different essential oils such as lavender, neroli, jasmine absolute, among others. | NR | |
| Geva et al. (2020) | Saliva | ELISA | Carter et al. (2007) | Contact with a robot that was designed to elicit a feeling of social connection, was associated to mood improvements, but reduced salivary OXT levels in adults. | 22–30 pg/ml |
Note: NR (Not reported).