Table 2.
Reported gonorrhoea test positivity in women and men by WHO region and country
| WHO region | Country | No. of data points | Reference | Years reported | Study populationa | Study setting | Sampling | No. tested | Reported test positivity | Standardized estimate | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| WOMEN | |||||||||||
| Africa | Proxy general population samples | ||||||||||
| Ethiopia | 2 | Mulu et al. [23] | 2013 | Clinic attendees, Women | Hospital, multiple clinic types | Simple random | 409 | 1.00% | 1.25% | ||
| Tadesse et al. [24] | 2014–2015 | Ob/Gyn clinic attendees | Mixed attendees | Non-probability | 322 | 0.31% | 0.39% | ||||
| Ghana | 1 | Yirenya-Tawiah et al. [25] | 2005–2006 | Community, Sexually active, Women | Community-based recruitment | Non-probability | 191 | 2.60% | 2.05% | ||
| Kenya | 4 | Jespers et al. [26] | 2010–2011 | Clinic attendees, Women | Multiple clinic types + community | Non-probability | 110 | 1.00% | 0.20% | ||
| Kerubo et al. [27] | 2013 | Students/young, Women | High school | Non-probability | 511 | 0.59% | 0.24% | ||||
| Masese et al. [28] | 2014–2015 | Students/young, Women | High schools + universities | Non-probability | 451 | 1.55% | 1.60% | ||||
| Otieno et al. [29] | 2007–2009 | Community, Women | Community-based recruitment | Non-probability | 424 | 4.70% | 3.99% | ||||
| Mozambique | 1 | Menendez et al. [30] | 2000 | Mixed groups/Unknown, Women | Mixed clinic types + community | Age-stratified | 250 | 13.60% | 18.90% | ||
| South Africa | 3 | Jespers et al. [26] | 2010–2011 | Clinic attendees, Women | Multiple clinic types + community | Non-probability | 109 | 1.00% | 0.20% | ||
| Kaida et al. [31] | 2014–2016 | Community, Women | Community-based recruitment | Non-probability | 198 | 7.07% | 6.42% | ||||
| Peters et al. [32] | 2011–2012 | Community, Women | Primary care centres | Geographic stratification | 604 | 10.00% | 10.46% | ||||
| Uganda | 2 | Rassjo et al. [33] | 2006 | Students/young, Sexually active women | Youth clinic | Non-probability | 595 | 4.50% | 3.79% | ||
| Rutherford et al. [34] | 2008–2009 | Students/young, Sexually active women | University students | Non-probability | 280 | 1.07% | 0.69% | ||||
| During pregnancy | |||||||||||
| Botswana | 2 | Offorjebe et al. [35] | 2015–2016 | ANC Survey | ANC | Non-probability | 300 | 1.70% | 0.92% | ||
| Wynn et al. [36] | 2015–2016 | ANC Survey | ANC | Non-probability | 200 | 1.50% | 0.72% | ||||
| Kenya | 2 | Masha et al. [37] | 2015 | ANC Survey | ANC | Non-probability | 202 | 1.00% | 1.09% | ||
| Warr et al. [38] | 2011–2013 | ANC Survey | ANC, HIV negative women | Non-probability | 1221 | 2.00% | 1.36% | ||||
| Sudan | 2 | Abdelaziz et al. [39] | 2008 | ANC Survey | ANC | Non-probability | 200 | 1.80% | 2.25% | ||
| Abdelrahim et al. [40] | ·· | ANC Routine screening | Pregnant women, low socioeconomic status | Non-probability | 350 | 0.00% | 0.00% | ||||
| Tanzania | 2 | Chiduo et al. [41] | 2008–2010 | ANC Routine screening | ANC | Non-probability | 185 | 1.62% | 2.03% | ||
| Hokororo et al. [42] | 2012 | ANC Survey | ANC, adolescent girls | Non-probability | 403 | 6.70% | 7.69% | ||||
| Zambia | 1 | Chaponda et al. [43] | 2013–2014 | ANC Survey | First time attendees | Non-probability | 1083 | 3.14% | 2.66% | ||
| Americas (excluding high-income North America) | Proxy general population samples | ||||||||||
| Brazil | 3 | Piazzetta et al. [44] | ·· | Students/young, Sexually active women | University students (secondary analysis) | Non-probability | 335 | 2.39% | 2.47% | ||
| Pinto et al. [45] | 2009 | Clinic attendees, Women | Parturient women, national sample | Non-probability | 2071 | 1.00% | 1.09% | ||||
| Rocha et al. [46] | 2010 | Community, Women | Primary healthcare | Non-probability | 361 | 1.40% | 0.68% | ||||
| Chile | 2 | Conejero et al. [47] | 2011 | Students/young, Sexually active women | University gynaecology clinic | Non-probability | 344 | 0.00% | 0.00% | ||
| Huneeus et al. [48] | ·· | Community, Sexually active, Women | Community adolescent health clinics | Non-probability | 115 | 0.87% | 0.07% | ||||
| Colombia | 1 | Paredes et al. [49] | 2011 | Students/young, Women | High schools | Non-probability | 436 | 0.20% | 0.22% | ||
| Haiti | 1 | Jobe et al. [50] | 2012 | Clinic attendees, Women | Women's health clinic | Non-probability | 104 | 0.96% | 0.18% | ||
| Mexico | 1 | Casillas-Vega et al. [51] | 2013–2014 | Ob/Gyn clinic attendees | Gynaecology clinic, first time attendees | Non-probability | 662 | 2.11% | 1.34% | ||
| During pregnancy | |||||||||||
| Brazil | 1 | Silveira et al. [52] | 2005–2008 | Clinic attendees, Women | Maternity unit, women singleton newborns | Non-probability | 2101 | 1.14% | 0.76% | ||
| Haiti | 1 | Bristow et al. [53] | 2015–2016 | ANC Survey | ANC | Non-probability | 300 | 2.67% | 1.91% | ||
| Eastern Mediterranean | During pregnancy | ||||||||||
| Iran | Pourabbas et al. [54] | ·· | Clinic attendees, Women | Maternity unit | Non-probability | 239 | 1.26% | 0.49% | |||
| Europe | Proxy general population samples | ||||||||||
| Ireland | 1 | Hassan et al. [55] | ·· | Community, Women | Women attending primary care for cervical screening | Non-probability | 236 | 0.00% | 0.00% | ||
| Italy | 2 | Matteelli et al. [56] | 2012–2013 | Students/young, Women | High school | Non-probability | 1606 | 0.00% | 0.00% | ||
| Salfa et al. [57] | 2009–2013 | Mixed groups/Unknown, Women | Lab reports from tests at multiple healthcare providers including screening tests | Geographic stratification | 40 579 | 0.1% | 0.1% | ||||
| Sweden | 1 | Nolskog et al. [58] | 2013–2014 | Students/young, Women | Youth clinics | Systematic | 509 | 0.00% | 0.00% | ||
| Switzerland | 1 | Sakem et al. [59] | 2009–2010 | Mixed groups/Unknown, Women | Laboratory samples including screening programmes | National laboratory database | 8009 | 0.14% | 0.00% | ||
| UK | 1 | Grech et al. [60] | 2014–2015 | Clinic attendees, Women | Integrated sexual health service, women >40 years | Systematic | 150 | 0.70% | 0.01% | ||
| During pregnancy | |||||||||||
| France | 1 | Peuchant et al. [61] | 2011 | ANC Routine screening | ANC | Non-probability | 1004 | 0.00% | 0.00% | ||
| Portugal | 1 | Borges-Costa et al. [62] | 2006–2008 | Clinic attendees, Women | Pregnant adolescents attending obstetric hospital clinic | Non-probability | 204 | 4.90% | 4.90% | ||
| High-income North America | Proxy general population samples | ||||||||||
| USA | 4 | CDC (National Job Training Program) [63] | 2018 | Community, women | National Job Training Program for socioeconomically disadvantaged youth | Non-probability | ·· | 2.2%b | 2.2%b | ||
| Jackson et al. [64] | 2009–2010 | Clinic attendees, Women | Chart review of women > 25 years screened according to guidelines in Baltimore | Non-probability sample of consecutive attendees | 658 | 0.30% | 0.00% | ||||
| Newbern et al. [65] | 2003–2010 | Students/young women | Participants in Philadelphia high school STI screening programme | Non-probability | 36 263 | 9.00%c | 9.32%c | ||||
| Nsuami et al. [66] | 2003–2005 | Students/young women | Participants in New Orleans high school STI screening programme | Non-probability | 1554 | ·· (2.4% for men and women combined)d | ·· (2.4% for men and women combined)d | ||||
| During pregnancy | |||||||||||
| USA | 4 | Akoh et al. [67] | 2006–2009 | ANC Survey | Adolescent maternal programme | Stratified by ethnicity/race | 158 | 3.00% | 3.00% | ||
| Berggren et al. [68] | 2003–2005 | ANC Survey | Washington Hospital Center | Non-probability | 125 | 10.00% | 10.00% | ||||
| Blatt et al. [69] | 2005–2008 | Pregnant women, Community | Laboratory results from pregnant women | Database study | 730 796 | 0.63% | 0.63% | ||||
| Waight et al. [70] | 2007–2009 | Mixed groups/Unknown, Women | STD diagnoses linked to birth records | Database study | 195 977 | 1.55% | 1.55% | ||||
| South-East Asia | Proxy general population samples | ||||||||||
| India | 1 | Krishnan et al .[71] | Not stated | Community, Women | Samples collected during household visits | Non-probability | 811 | 0.00% | 0.00% | ||
| During pregnancy | |||||||||||
| Thailand | 1 | Asavapiriyanont et al. [72] | 2006–2007 | ANC Survey | Pregnant teenagers | Non-probability | 121 | 1.70% | 1.76% | ||
| Western Pacific | Proxy general population samples | ||||||||||
| Korea (Rep. of) | 2 | Choe et al. [73] | 2010 | Community, Women | General population health examination centres | Non-probability | 805 | 0.25% | 0.26% | ||
| Kim et al. [74] | 2012 | Community, Sexually active, Women | Hospital clinics, health women attending for checkups | Non-probability | 799 | 0.00% | 0.00% | ||||
| Papua New Guinea | 1 | Vallely et al. [75] | 2011–2015 | Community, Women | Well woman clinic only | Non-probability | 614 | 7.98% | 8.17% | ||
| Solomon Islands | 1 | Marks et al. [76] | 2014 | Clinic attendees, Women | Community outpatient clinics | Non-probability | 296 | 5.10% | 4.40% | ||
| During pregnancy | |||||||||||
| New Zealand | 1 | Ekeroma et al. [77] | 2009 | ANC Routine screening | Hospital maternity unit | Non-probability | 4635 | 0.22% | 0.20% | ||
| Papua New Guinea | 3 | Badman et al. [78] | 2014 | ANC Routine screening | Women at first antenatal visit | Non-probability | 125 | 11.20% | 10.65% | ||
| Vallely et al. [75] | 2011–2015 | ANC Survey | ANC | Non-probabilitynon-probability | 765 | 14.20% | 15.24% | ||||
| Wangnapi et al. [79] | 2011–2012 | ANC Survey | ANC | Non-probability | 362 | 9.67% | 9.08% | ||||
| MEN | |||||||||||
| Africa | Kenya | 1 | Otieno et al. [29] | 2007–2009 | Community, Sexually active, Men | Community-based recruitment | Non-probability | 422 | 0.00% | 0.00% | |
| South Africa | 1 | Kaida et al. [31] | 2014–2016 | Community, Men | Community-based recruitment | Non-probability | 154 | 1.30% | 1.40% | ||
| Uganda | 1 | Rutherford et al. [34] | 2008–2009 | Students/young, Men | University students | Non-probability | 360 | 0.00% | 0.00% | ||
| Americas (excluding high-income North America) | Chile | 1 | Huneeus et al. [48] | ·· | Community, Sexually active, Men | Community adolescent health clinics | Non-probability | 171 | 0.00% | 0.00% | |
| Colombia | 1 | Paredes et al. [49] | 2011 | Students/young, Men | High schools | Non-probability | 536 | 0.00% | 0.00% | ||
| Haiti | 1 | Downey et al. [80] | 2013 | Clinic attendees, Men | Men's health clinic | Non-probability | 205 | 0.00% | 0.00% | ||
| Europe | Italy | 2 | Matteelli et al. [56] | 2012–2013 | Students/young, Men | High school | Non-probability | 1112 | 0.00% | 0.00% | |
| Salfa et al. [57] | 2009–2013 | Mixed groups/Unknown, Men | Lab reports from tests at multiple healthcare providers | Geographic stratification | 10 243 | 2.10% | 2.10% | ||||
| Sweden | 1 | Nolskog et al. [58] | 2013–2014 | Students/young, Men | Youth clinics | Systematic | 492 | 0.20% | 0.12% | ||
| Switzerland | 1 | Sakem et al. [59] | 2009–2010 | Mixed groups/Unknown, Men | Laboratory samples incl. screening programmes | National laboratory database | 1236 | 2.10% | 1.82% | ||
| High-income North America | USA | 4 | CDC (National Job Training Program) [63] | 2018 | Community, Men | National Job Training Program for socioeconomically disadvantaged youth | Non-probability | ·· | 0.7%b | 0.7%b | |
| Drinkard et al. [81] | 2009–2015 | Students/young, Men | College health clinics | Database study | 5453 | 0.70% | 0.22% | ||||
| Newbern et al. [65] | 2003–2010 | Students/young men | Participants in Philadelphia high school STI screening programme | Non-probability | 39 010 | 4.07%c | 4.65%c | ||||
| Nsuami et al. [66] | 2003–2005 | Students/young men | Participants in New Orleans high school STI screening programme | Non-probability sample of participants | 1782 | ·· (2.4% for men and women combined)d | ·· (2.4% for men and women combined)d | ||||
| South-East Asia | India | 1 | Dave et al. [82] | 2005 | Workers, Men | Migrant workers | Multistage probability | 840 | 0.90% | 0.94% | |
| Thailand | 1 | Jatapai et al. [83] | 2008–2009 | Military, Men | Newly inducted military conscripts | Systematic | 2123 | 0.94% | 1.04% | ||
| Western Pacific | China | 1 | Zhang et al. [84] | 2006 | Workers, Men | Miners | Cluster | 1773 | 0.81% | 0.81% | |
| Korea (Rep. of) | 1 | Choe et al. [73] | 2010 | Clinic attendees, Men | General population health examination centres | Non-probability | 807 | 0.62% | 0.61% | ||
aTo aid cross-referencing, study populations were categorized to align with SPECTRUM codes [11].
If the standardized estimate was a negative number, the standardized prevalence was reported at 1 case divided by 100 times the sample size [11].
If neither the clinical specimen nor the laboratory test used were specified, the estimate was not standardized [57, 62, 63, 67–70, 84].
If the clinical specimen was specified but not the laboratory test used, or vice versa, the arithmetic mean of the sensitivity and specificity for the laboratory test or for the clinical specimen, respectively, was used instead [27, 34, 52, 59, 80, 81].
bThe denominator was not reported and estimates were not standardized.
cPrevalence was reported over an 8-year period.
dPrevalence proportion for men and women was not reported separately.
··=Not reported. ANC=antenatal clinic. CDC=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV=human immunodeficiency virus. No.=number. Ob/Gyn=Obstetrics and Gynaecology. Rep.=Republic. STD=sexually transmitted disease. STI=sexually transmitted infection. UK=United Kingdom. USA=Unites States of America. WHO=World Health Organization.