Table 1.

Signature genetic alterations in each step of the PDAC tumorigenesis process.

Stage of Tumorigenesis	Gene Affected	Type of Genetic Alteration [References]
Acinar to Ductal Metaplasia	KRAS	Constitutive activation (upregulation): gain-of-function mutation (KRAS 12GD) [15,16]
Low grade PanIN	CDKN2A (Ink4a/Arf)	Inactivation (downregulation): deletion, loss-of-function mutation [15,16]
High grade PanIN	TP53	Inactivation (downregulation): loss-of-function mutation, deletion [15,16]
	SMAD4	Inactivation (downregulation): deletion, loss of function mutation [15,16]