Table 1.
Study characteristics of included studies.
| First Author and Year | Country | Study Design and Size | Study Setting | Age (Years) | Sex (Female N (%)) | Injury Type | Assessment Time (Baseline, Follow Up) | Specific Outcome Measures |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ackland 2013 [48] | Australia | Prospective cohort, 178 | Hospital based | Median 35 (IQR 25–48) | 72 (44.0%) | Neck pain | Baseline, after discharge, 6 m, 12 m | RTW: return to full duties, categorical (n, %) Work capacity: period of modified work, categorical (n, %) Work ability: categorical (n, %) |
| Barbosa 2014 [49] | Brazil | Cross-sectional, 210 | General public | Aged between 18 and 35 years n = 59; aged between 36 and 45 years n = 64; age >45 years n = 42 | Men only | Facial trauma | One time | Sick leave: categorical (n, %) Productivity loss: absenteeism, categorical (n, %) |
| Berecki-Gisolf 2013 [7] | Australia | Retrospective cohort, 5970 | Transport Accident Commission | 24.0% aged between 35 and 44 | 2208 (37.0%) | MSK or orthopaedic | Once (17 months after accident) | Sick leave: compensated days off work, categorical (%) |
| Biering-Sorensen 2014 [50] | Denmark | Prospective cohort, 7780 (104 WAD; 3204 other MSK) | Municipalities | WAD mean 36; MSK mean 42 | WAD 75.0%; MSK 52.0% | Whiplash and other MSK pains | At 26 weeks, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years | RTW: categorical (n, %) Sick leave: number of participants sick listed, categorical (n) |
| Borchgrevink 1996 [47] | Norway | Retrospective cohort, 426 | ED | Men median 37 (IQR 28–47); women 36 (IQR 26–48) | Men 174 (41.0%); women 252 (59.0%) | Whiplash | Prior to injury, follow up after injury (between 2.5 and 8−5 years) | RTW: categorical (n) Sick leave: registration for sick leave, categorical (n, %) |
| Brison 2000 [51] | Canada | Prospective cohort, 353 | EDs | Aged 18–30 year n = 140 (39.7%); aged 31–50 years n = 150 (42.5%); aged 51–70 years n = 63 (17.8%) | 224 (63.5%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24 months | Sick leave: missing <1 week of work, categorical (%); days missed work, continuous (mean) Work capacity: number of participants that modified work activities, categorical (%) |
| Buitenhuis 2009 [52] | The Netherlands | Prospective cohort, 879 | Insurance company | Mean 36 (SD 12) | 539 (61.3%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 6, 12 months | RTW: number of participants with no work or paid employment, categorical (n,%); working hours per week, continuous (mean, SD) Sick leave: people on work disability, categorical (n, %). |
| Bunketorp 2002 [53] | Sweden | Retrospective cohort, 108 | EDs in 2 main hospitals | Mean 52 (SD 13) | 66 (61.0%) | Whiplash | Once (17 years after injury) | Sick leave: number of participant on sick leave, work disability, or early retirement, categorical (%) Work ability: assigned medical disability, categorical (n, %) |
| Bylund 1998 [54] | Sweden | Prospective cohort, 255 | General public | Women mean 33; men mean 31 | 132 (52.0%) | Cervical strain/ fracture | During the 2-year period from Jan 1, 1990 to Dec 31, 1991 | Sick leave: categorical (n, %) per collusion mechanism; total sick leave days. |
| Carroll 2012 [55] | Canada | Prospective cohort, 5163 | Claimants general public | Mean 39 (SD 15) | 3479 (66.9%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 6 weeks, 3, 6 months | Sick leave: participants off work, categorical (n, %) |
| Casey 1 2011 [38] | Australia | Prospective cohort, 246 | Private NSW insurers | Mean 43 (SD 15) | 78.0%—n not reported | Whiplash | Once (within 3 months of accident) | Work capacity: number of people unable to continue preinjury work capacity, categorical (n, %) |
| Casey 1 2015 [37] | Australia | Prospective cohort, 246 | Private NSW insurers | Mean 43 (SD 15) | 78.0%—n not reported | Whiplash | Once (within 3 months of accident) | Work capacity: categorical (n, %) |
| de Rome 2012 [56] | Australia | Prospective cohort, 212 | Hospitals and motorcycle repair service | 24.7% aged between 17 and 25; 44.5% aged between 26 and 39; 30.8% aged between 40 and 75 | NR | Fractures and cuts and abrasions | Baseline, 2, 6 months | Sick leave: days of work, continuous (mean) |
| Dufton 2 2012 [39] | Canada | Retrospective cohort, 5581 | Rehabilitation clinics | Mean acute 36 (SD 11); early chronic 36 (SD 11); chronic 36 (SD 11) | Acute 55.9%; early chronic 54.9%; chronic 61.6%-n not reported | Whiplash | At presentation, at discharge | Sick leave: participants off work, categorical (%) Work capacity: participants that modified work duties, categorical (%) |
| Dufton 2 2006 [40] | Canada | Retrospective cohort, 2185 | Rehabilitation clinics | Mean 36 (SD 11); | 1208 (55.3%) | Whiplash | At presentation, at discharge | RTW: participants that returned to work, categorical (n, %); days to RTW, continuous (mean) |
| Ettlin 1992 [46] | Switzerland | Prospective cohort, 21 | Emergency department | Mean 29 | 18 (86.0%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 3 days, 3 months, 1, 2 years | RTW: return to part-time and full-time employment, categorical (n) |
| Geldman 2008 [57] | England | Prospective cohort, 102 | Police physiotherapy and rehabilitation department | Mean 34 (SD 7), range 19–51 | 35 (34.0%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 3, 12 months | RTW: participants that returned to usual work, categorical (%) |
| Gopinath 3 2015 [42] | Australia | Prospective cohort, 284 | MMA Personal Injury Registry database | Mean 46.4 (SD 17.1) | 183 (64.4%) | MSK injuries (whiplash/ fractures) | Baseline, 12, 24 months | RTW: categorical (n, %) Work capacity: resumed to full or modified duties, categorical (n, %) |
| Gopinath 3 2017 [41] | Australia | Prospective cohort, 284 | SIRA Personal Injury Registry database | NR | NR | MSK injuries (whiplash/ fractures) | Baseline, 12, 24 months | RTW: categorical (n, %) Work capacity: resumed to full or modified duties, categorical (n, %) |
| Gray 4 2018 [29] | Australia | Retrospective cohort, 24311 | Transport Accident Commission | 22.0% aged 15–24; 25.1% aged 25–34; 22.7% aged 35–44; 19.3% aged 45–54; 11.0% aged 55–70. | 36.9% |
Various MSK injuries | NA | RTW: failed and sustained RTW, categorical (n, %) |
| Gray 4 2018 [30] | Australia | Retrospective cohort, 32970 | Transport Accident Commission | 22.0% aged 15–24; 25.1% aged 25–34; 22.7% aged 35–44; 19.1% aged 45–54; 11.0% aged 55–70. | 36.0% | Various MSK injuries | NA | Work capacity: Gradual RTW pathway, categorical (n., %) and days (median, IQR) |
| Guest 2017 [58] | Australia | Retrospective cohort, 6341 (MSK n = 5734; MSK + psychological distress (MSKPD) n = 607) | SIRA Personal Injury Register | MSK group mean 43 (SD 16); MSKPD group mean 44 (SD 16) | MSK group 3317 (58.0%); MSKPD group 395 (65.0%) | Various MSK injuries | Once | Productivity loss: economic loss claim, categorical (n,%) |
| Gun 2005 [59] | Australia | Prospective cohort, 135 | EDs, medical and physio practices | Mean 36 (SD 15) | 98 (83.0%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 6 weeks, 12 months | RTW: categorical (n, %) |
| Herrström 2000 [60] | Sweden | Prospective cohort, 158 | Health care-based register | Range 10–77; women median 30; men median 35 | 74/125 (59.0%) (reported for 12 month data n = 125) | Whiplash | Baseline, 12 months | Sick leave: reported sick leave, categorical (n, %); duration sick leave (mean, range) |
| Hildingsson 1990 [61] | Sweden | Prospective cohort, 93 | University based | Median 31 (range 17–67) | 53 (57.0%) | Whiplash | Baseline, follow up (mean 25 months) | Sick leave: reported sick leave, categorical (n) Work capacity: changes in work status, categorical (n) |
| Holm 1999 [62] | Sweden | Cross-sectional, 4121 | Road Traffic Injury Commission | WAD 1989: partial or full work disability (n = 172) mean 47 (SD 10); no work disability (n = 106) mean 39 (SD 11) WAD 1994: partial or full work disability (n = 417) mean 43 (SD 10); no work disability (n = 277) mean 37 (SD 11) |
WAD 1989: partial or full work disability 100/172 (57.6%); no work disability 71/106 (67.0%) WAD 1994: partial or full work disability 256/417 (61.4%); no work disability 156/277 (56.3%) |
Whiplash | Once | RTW: return to full work capacity, categorical (%) Work capacity: partial and full work disability, categorical (n, %) |
| Hours 2014 [31] | France | Prospective cohort, 253 | Registry of Road Crash Trauma | Age group 16–24: grade I: n = 19 (30.6%), grade II n = 35 (32.1%); age group 25–34: grade I n = 14 (22.6%), grade II n = 32 (29.4%); age group 35–44: grade I n = 15 (24.2%), grade II n = 25 (22.9%); age group 45–54: grade I n = 2 (3.2%), grade II n = 9 (8.3%); age group 55 + : grade I n = 12 (19.4%), grade II n = 8 (7.3%) | 157 (62.0%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 12 months | RTW: participants that did not RTW, categorical (%) Sick leave: categorical (n, %) and (median, IQR). |
| Hoving 2003 [63] | Australia | Cross-sectional, 71 | Physio, GP, rheumatology clinics | Mean 40 (SD 14) | 59 (83.1%) | Whiplash | Once | Work ability: Neck Disability Index—Work Item mean and The Northwick Park Neck Pain Questionnaire-Work/housework, continuous (mean, SD); problem elicitation technique (PET)—work for wages, categorical (n, %) |
| Kasch 2001 [64] | Denmark | Prospective cohort, 141 | General public | Mean 36 (SD 11); | 74 (52.0%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 1 week, 1, 3, 6, 12 months | RTW: participants that did not RTW, categorical (n, %) Work capacity: returned to modified job functions, categorical (%) |
| Kasch 2011 [65] | Denmark | Prospective cohort, 141 | EDs | NR | NR | Whiplash | At 1 week, 1, 3, 6, 12 months | RTW: categorical (n, %) |
| Kasch 2019 [66] | Denmark | Prospective cohort, 143 | EDs | Mean 35.8 (SD 10.5) | 75 (52.0%) | Whiplash | At 1 week, 6, 12 months | Work capacity: participants ‘recovered’ (n, %) |
| Kinzel 2006 [45] | Australia | Prospective cohort, 11 | Hospital based | Mean 34 (range 16–67) | 1 (9.0%) | Upper limb MSK injuries | Baseline, regular outpatient appointments up to 12 months | RTW: categorical (n) |
| Krogh 2018 [67] | Denmark | Prospective cohort, 141 | EDs | Mean 36 (SD 11) | 74 (52.0%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 1, 3, 6, 12 months | Work capacity: participants’ recovery status, categorical (n, %) |
| Leth-Petersen 2009 [68] | Denmark | Retrospective cohort, 1203 | Records of National Board of Industrial Injuries | Women-comp mean 36 (SD 9); women-noncomp 36 (SD 9); men-comp 35 (SD 8); men-noncomp 36 (SD 9) | 844 (70.0%) | Whiplash | Retrospective data | Productivity loss: percentage of lost earnings capacity, categorical (n, %) |
| Mankovsky-Arnold 2017 [69] | Canada | Cross-sectional, 105 | Rehabilitation clinics | Overall mean 37 (range 17–57); men mean 38 (SD 9); women 36 (SD 11). | 49 (47.0%) | Whiplash | Once | RTW: employment status, categorical (n, %) |
| Miettinen 5 2004 [43] | Finland | Prospective cohort, 182 | Insurance companies | Overall mean 42; men 45 (SD 15); women 40 (SD 14) | 117 (64.3%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 12 months | Sick leave: (length of) sick leave, categorical (n, %) |
| Miettinen 5 2002 [44] | Finland | Prospective cohort, 201 | Insurance companies | Mean 42 | NR | Whiplash | Baseline, 12 months | Sick leave: (length of) sick leave, categorical (n, %) |
| Munjin 2011 [70] | Chile | Retrospective cohort, 46 | Hospital based | Mean 49 (range 16–70) | 37 (80.4%) |
Spine fracture (no neurologic impairment) | Retrospective data | Sick leave: leave of absence, continuous (average, median, range) |
| Myrtveit 2015 [71] | Denmark | Prospective cohort, 740 | Clinics in University Hospitals | Mean 35 (SD 11) | 475 (64.1%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 12 months | Work ability: participants that reported reduced work capability, categorical (n, %) |
| Nguyen 2019 [32] | Australia | Prospective cohort, 498 | EDs, rural health services, primary care and the NSW State Insurance Regulatory Authority—Personal Injury Registry, Claims Advisory Service. | Neck injuries: mean 40.2 (SD 16) Lower back injuries: mean 35.7 (SD 17) Lower limb injuries: mean 38.9 (SD 15) |
Neck injuries: 107 (64.5%) Lower back injuries: 31 (39.7%) Lower limb injuries: 78 (30.7%) |
Various MSK injuries | Baseline, 6 months | RTW: categorical (n, %) |
| O’Hara 2018 [72] | Uganda | Prospective cohort, 57 | Hospital based | Median 34 (IQR 27–45) | 9 (11.1%) | Isolated tibial/femoral fracture | Baseline (within 48 hrs of hospital admission), 6, 12, 24 months | RTW: categorical (n, %); time to RTW, continuous (mean, 95%CI) Productivity loss: reduction in monthly income, continuous (mean difference, 95%CI); debts, continuous (mean, 95%CI) |
| Pieske 2010 [73] | Germany | Prospective cohort, 81 | Hospital based | Mean 33.0 (SD 12.0), range 18–74 | 45 (55.6%) | Whiplash | Baseline, 1, 3, 6 months | RTW: inability to work, categorical (n, %) Sick leave: duration of not being at work, categorical (n, %) |
| Prang 2015 [74] | Australia | Cross-sectional, 1649 | General public | Mean 44 (SD 15). | 685 (41.5%) | Various MSK injuries | Once | RTW: categorical (n, %) |
| Ratzon 2015 [75] | Israel | Cross-sectional, 123 (Whiplash n = 76; Hip n = 47) | Outpatient clinics and hospital | Whiplash mean 33 (SD 11.8); hip 38 (12) | Whiplash 40 (52.0%); hip 12 (25.5%) | Whiplash and hip injury | Once | Work ability: degree of disability (based on medical files), categorical (n, %) |
| Rebbeck 2006 [76] | Australia | Prospective cohort, 114 | Insurance databases | Mean 39.4 (SE 1.3) | Gender female n = 79 (69.3%), male n = 35 (30.7%). | Whiplash | Baseline (at 3 months), 6 months, 2 years | Sick leave: participants taking days off work, categorical (n, %); number of days taken off work, continuous (median, IQR) |
| Rosenthal 1979 [77] | USA | Retrospective cohort, 43 | University hospital | NR | NR | Hip fracture/dislocation | Retrospective data | RTW: not returning to work, categorical (n, %) |
| Sarrami 2016 [78] | Australia | Retrospective cohort, 90 | SIRA Personal Injury Register | Mean 46 (SD 12), range 23–73 | 48 (53.0%) | Spine surgery | Retrospective data | RTW: categorical (%) Work capacity: return to pre-injury duties, categorical (%) |
| Schreiber 2009 [79] | USA | Prospective cohort, 38 | Private chiropractic offices | Mean 37 | “male to female ratio nearly 1:1” | Whiplash | Once | RTW: employment, categorical (%) Work ability: decreased work function, categorical (n) |
| Scuderi 2005 [80] | USA | Prospective cohort, 270 (Workers Compensation (WC) group n = 54; Personal Injury (PI) group n = 216) | Workmen’s Compensation System | WC group mean 43 (range 25–62); PI group mean 35 (range 18–68) | WC group 20 (37.0%); PI group 112 (51.9%) | Neck pain | Baseline (referral to surgeon), follow ups until considered RTW/ reaching max improvement/ lost to follow up after 2 years | RTW: unable to RTW, categorical (n) Sick leave: lost days of work, continuous (total, mean) |
| Smed 1997 [81] | Denmark | Prospective cohort, 29 | University hospital | Median 33 (range 22–56) | 17 (58.6%) | Whiplash | 1 month post-injury | Sick leave: categorical (n) |
| Swartzman 1996 [82] | Canada | Retrospective cohort, 62 (litigants n = 41, post-litigants n = 21) | Private practice, University hospital | Litigants mean 38; post-litigants mean 39 | Litigants 31 (76.0%); post-litigant 17 (81.0%) | Whiplash | Once | RTW: employment status, categorical; number of hours per week employed outside the home, continuous (mean) |
| Virani 2001 [83] | Canada | Cross-sectional, 356 (physicians n = 149; nonphysicians n = 207) | University hospital | Physicians mean 46; nonphysicians mean 40 | NR | Whiplash | Once | Sick leave: time off, categorical (%) |
| Vos 2008 [84] | The Netherlands | Prospective cohort, 42 | GPs | Mean 35 | NR | Neck pain and whiplash | Baseline, 6, 12, 26, 52 | Sick leave: categorical (%) |
Superscript numbers (1,2,3,4,5) attached to author names indicate the pairs of studies that report on the same cohort of participants. Abbreviations: IQR, interquartile range; MSK, musculoskeletal complaints; NR, not reported; RTW, return to work; SE, standard error; WAD, whiplash-associated disorder.