Table 3.

MSC-/induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived exosomes (Exos) in bone regeneration.

Exosome Source	Isolation Method	Outcome	References
BM-MSCs	Ultracentrifugation of BM-MSC-conditioned media	MSC-Exos facilitated femur fracture healing in mice	[105]
iPSC-MSCs	Ultracentrifugation of iPSC-MSC-conditioned media	iPSC-MSC-Exos efficaciously stimulated bone regeneration and angiogenesis in critical-sized calvarial defects in rats	[111]
iPSC-MSCs	Ultracentrifugation of iPSC-MSC-conditioned media	iPSC-MSC-Exos significantly prevented osteonecrosis and increased microvessel density in femoral head	[113]
ADSCs	Ultracentrifugation of ADSC-conditioned media	ADSC-Exos increased bone formation in critical-sized mice calvarial defects	[107]
Umbilical MSCs treated under hypoxic condition	Ultracentrifugation of media with sucrose/D2O cushion conjunction	Hypo-exosomes promoted femoral fracture healing by transferring miR-126 in mice	[99]
BM-MSCs	Ultracentrifugation of BM-MSC-conditioned media	Osteogenesis, angiogenesis, and bone healing in a fracture model of rat femoral nonunion	[107]
hDPSCs	Ultracentrifugation of hDPSC-conditioned media	hDPSC-Exos facilitated osteogenic differentiation of BM-MSCs; mice calvarial defect repair by hDPSC-Exo loaded constructs	[108]
BM-MSCs	Ultracentrifugation of BM-MSC-conditioned media	MSC-Exos promoted angiogenesis and osteogenesis in vitro; restoration of bone formation and mechanical quality in vivo	[109]
Umbilical MSCs	Ultracentrifugation of umbilical MSC-conditioned media	MSC-Exos seeded on 3D hydrogel scaffold promoted the repair of cranial defects in rats	[100]