Table 2.

Comorbidities related to obesity.

Type of Comorbidity	Specific Comorbidity
Endocrine	Hyperleptinemia, hypothyroidism, hypercortisolism, Cushing’s syndrome, polycystic ovary syndrome, metabolic syndrome, and T2D
Gastrointestinal	Kidney stones, glomerulopathy, kidney dysfunction, urinary incontinence (in women), pancreatitis, gallbladder disease, and liver disease (MAFLD and NASH)
Respiratory	Obstructive sleep apnea and asthma
Esophageal	Gastroesophageal reflux disease and Barrett’s esophagus
Cardiovascular	Hypertension, CHD, AF, diastolic dysfunction, HF, ischemic stroke, and cardiac fibrosis
Neurological	Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia, any type of dementia, mood, anxiety, and other psychiatric disorders
Fertility	In women: preeclampsia, eclampsia of pregnancy, depression, amenorrhea, menorrhagia, and infertility In men: low sperm count and erectile dysfunction
Immune system dysregulation	Infections such as surgical-site, urinary tract, nosocomial, and skin
Autoimmune diseases	Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, multiple sclerosis, psoriasis, and psoriatic arthritis
Viral	H1N1 influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2 (obesity increases severity of the disease)
Cancer	Esophageal, colon, pancreatic, endometrium, renal, gastric, uterine, gallbladder, cervical, thyroid, prostate, leukemia, liver, ovarian (epithelial), and breast (postmenopausal)

Abbreviations: T2D, type 2 diabetes; MAFLD, metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease; NASH, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis; CHD, coronary heart disease; AF, atrial fibrillation; HF, heart failure; H1N1, influenza A; SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.