Figure 1.

Characterisation of CeO₂ NP used in this study. (a) TEM analysis revealed CeO₂ NP to be cubic-shaped and approximately 25 nm in diameter. (b) DLS analysis revealed CeO₂ NP hydrodynamic size in water to be stable over 90 min at approximately 130 nm (n = 3). (c) CeO₂ NP hydrodynamic size in 1% DMEM showed a slightly smaller size at approximately 120 nm and was also stable over 90 min (n = 3). (d) CeO₂ NP in water showed a downward trend in ζ potential (n = 3). (e) CeO₂ NP ζ potential in 1% DMEM showed more stable ζ potential (n = 3). (f) 100 µM and 500 µM CeO₂ NP showed similar cell viability as TGF-β-treated control cells when measured using MTS assay (n = 3). (g) Light microscope images taken at 10× magnification of quiescent cells, TGF-β-activated cells, 100 µM CeO₂ NP, 500 µM CeO₂ NP and TiO₂ NP-treated cells (n = 3). Scale bar represents 200 µm. Error bars represent standard error of the mean (SEM); one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to calculate significance.