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Effects of dental MSC-derived secretome in bone repair. Dental MSC-EVs promoted bone formation and osteoblast differentiation through the activation of BMPs/SMAD and WTN signaling pathways, whereas, VEGF and FGF2 released from dental MSCs promoted formation of new blood vessels by activation of p38/MAPK, PI3K/AKT, and MEK/ERK signaling pathways.
