Table 3.
Bivariate associations between candidate predictors and confirmed viral load >50 copies/mL; all continuous variables are standardized.
| Baseline Characterisitics | OR (95% CI) | p-value |
|---|---|---|
| Age | 0.69 (0.61–0.79) | <0.0001 |
| Education | ||
| None or some primary | (ref) | (0.40 overall) |
| Completed primary but not secondary | 1.04 (0.71–1.51) | 0.86 |
| Completed secondary | 0.83 (0.55–1.24) | 0.36 |
| Gravidity | 0.90 (0.80–1.01) | 0.07 |
| Gestational age at first antenatal care visit | 1.10 (0.97–1.25) | 0.16 |
| Nadir CD4 | 0.83 (0.73–0.96) | 0.01 |
| Hemoglobin | 0.91 (0.81–1.03) | 0.12 |
| Initiated ART in pregnancy (vs. at delivery) | 1.28 (0.98–1.68) | 0.07 |
| Preterm | ||
| 37 weeks | (ref) | (0.21 overall) |
| 34 up to <37 | 0.80 (0.54–1.18) | 0.26 |
| <34 weeks | 1.61 (0.78–3.32) | 0.20 |
| Twins (vs. singleton) | 3.88 (1.85–8.14) | <0.001 |
| Time-varying characteristics | ||
| Time since delivery | ||
| 0–6 months | (ref) | |
| 6–12 months | 0.81 (0.69–0.95) | 0.01 |
| 12–18 months | 0.80 (0.66–0.97) | 0.03 |
| 18–24 months | 0.68 (0.52–0.87) | 0.003 |
| WHO clinical classification | ||
| 1 | (ref) | (0.19 overall) |
| 2 | 0.74 (0.42–1.32) | 0.31 |
| 3/4 | 2.86 (0.73–11.20) | 0.13 |
| Recent viral load >50 (prior 6 months) | 6.78 (5.60–8.21) | <0.0001 |
| History of viral load >50 (before the prior 6 months) | 2.48 (1.93–3.18) | <0.0001 |
| Stopped breastfeeding prior to current visit | 1.08 (0.86–1.37) | 0.51 |
| Baby acquired HIV prior to current visit | 5.51 (1.96–15.50) | 0.001 |
| Infant death any time prior to current visit | 1.73 (0.78–3.84) | 0.18 |
| Any missed visits in prior interval | 1.33 (0.81–2.18) | 0.27 |
| Any hospitalizations in prior interval | 1.23 (0.62–2.43) | 0.56 |
| Any alcohol use* | 0.65 (0.33–1.29) | 0.22 |
| Absolute neutrophil count* | 1.11 (1.02–1.20) | 0.01 |
| White blood cell count (log transformed)* | 1.12 (1.02–1.22) | 0.01 |
| Lymphocytes (log transformed)* | 0.93 (0.84–1.03) | 0.17 |
| Creatinine (log transformed)* | 0.90 (0.82–1.00) | 0.05 |
| Adherence, any missed in past 4 weeks | 1.24 (1.04–1.47) | 0.02 |
| Employment status | ||
| Not working | (ref) | (0.63 overall) |
| Working part-time | 0.96 (0.63–1.45) | 0.83 |
| Working full-time | 0.85 (0.62–1.18) | 0.33 |
| Food insecurity* | ||
| None/mild | (ref) | (0.10 overall) |
| Moderate | 0.91 (0.62–1.36) | 0.66 |
| Severe | 1.49 (1.02–2.19) | 0.04 |
| HIV status not disclosed to partner or household members | 0.91 (0.57–1.47) | 0.72 |
*
non-routine data considered in “enhanced” models