TABLE 1.
Mechanical forces regulate viral infection and transmission.
| Type of virus | Intracellular and extracellular mechanical forces | Major cellular components/processes | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Murine leukemia virus (MLV) | Actin filaments regulated retraction force | Virus surfing for entry | Lehmann et al. (2005) |
| Herpes simplex virus (HSV) | Actin filaments regulated retraction force | Virus surfing for entry | Salameh (2012) |
| Rhabdovirus (RV) | Actin filaments regulated contractile force | Providing force for clathrin-mediated endocytosis | Guo et al. (2019) |
| Adenovirus (AdV) | Actin filaments regulated contractile force | Actin and dynein providing forces for clathrin-mediated endocytosis; integrin as a receptor of the virus; Coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor binding to the virus to facilitate its entry | Meier and Greber (2004) |
| Lyle and McCormick (2010) | |||
| Walters et al. (2002) | |||
| Kaposi’s sarcoma–associated herpesvirus (KSHV) | Actin filaments regulated contractile force | Providing force for clathrin-mediated endocytosis, macropinocytosis, and trafficking | Greene and Gao (2009) |
| Torriani et al. (2019) | |||
| Simian virus 40 (SV40) | Actin filaments regulated contractile force | Providing force for caveolae-mediated endocytosis | Pelkmans and Helenius (2002) |
| Transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) | Actin filaments regulated contractile force | Providing force to promote membrane fission | Wang et al. (2020a) |
| Measles virus (MV) | Actin filaments regulated contractile force | Actin filaments generating forces for the formation of viral buds; adherent junction protein nectin-4 as a receptor for the virus | Bohn et al. (1986) |
| Mühlebach et al. (2011) | |||
| Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV) | Actin filaments regulated contractile force | Actin filaments rearrangement through the FAK-participated pathway to facilitate infection | Lv et al. (2018) |
| Retrovirus (RV) | Actin filaments regulated protrusive force | Providing protrusive forces to initiate assembly | Gladnikoff et al. (2009) |
| SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV) | Actin filaments regulated bending force | Providing bending force to expel viral particles from the plasma membrane | Ng et al. (2004) |
| West Nile virus (WNV) | Microtubules regulated contractile force; Actin filaments regulated contractile force | Microtubules providing force for clathrin-mediated endocytosis; Actin filaments providing force to expel viral particles to the extracellular environment; Integrin as a putative receptor of the virus | Chu et al. (2006) |
| Chu et al. (2003) | |||
| Bogachek et al. (2010) | |||
| Human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) | Cytoskeleton regulated mechanical force | Cytoskeleton rearrangement and dynamic changes leading to extensive cell mechanic changes and affecting viral replication; caveolin-1 binding to HIV Env protein and blocking viral fusion and reduced virus replication | Spear et al. (2014) |
| Wang et al. (2010) | |||
| Influenza virus (IAV) | Actin and microtubule motors regulated contractile force; Shear stress; Tensile or compressive forces | Dynactin, dynein, and myosin II generating forces to help to break apart viral capsids; FAK being hijacked to promote viral replication and inhibited from activating innate immune responses; Maintaining reconstructed structural unit on a chip | Banerjee et al. (2014) |
| Bergmann and Elbahesh (2019) | |||
| Zhang et al. (2021) | |||
| Coxsackievirus B1 (CVB1) | Shear stress; Tensile or compressive forces | Maintaining reconstructed structural unit on a chip and CVB1 polarized infection | Villenave et al. (2017) |
| Rhinovirus (HRV) | Shear stress; Tensile or compressive forces | Maintaining reconstructed structural unit on a chip | Benam et al. (2016) |
| Hepatitis B virus (HBV) | Shear stress; Tensile or compressive forces | Maintaining reconstructed structural unit on a chip and achieving HBV infection in vitro | Kang et al. (2015), Kang et al. (2017) |
| Ortega-Prieto et al. (2018), Ortega-Prieto et al. (2019) | |||
| Pseudorabies virus (PRV) | Shear stress; Tensile or compressive forces | Maintaining reconstructed structural unit on a chip | Wang et al. (2019b) |