TABLE 1.

Strategies of highly pathogenic human coronaviruses (HP-hCoVs) to shield viral RNA from recognition by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs).

Protein	Virus	Mechanism	References
DMV hiding nascent viral RNAs from PRRs
NSP3, NSP4, and NSP6	SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV	Formation DMV to hide nascent viral RNAs from PRRs	Angelini et al., 2013; Oudshoorn et al., 2017; Klein et al., 2020
Modification of the 5′-Cap structure to mask viral PAMPs
NSP10, NSP13, NSP14, and NSP16	HP-hCoVs	Mediating mRNA capping	von Grotthuss et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2009; Chang and Chen, 2021; Gorkhali et al., 2021; Ramasamy and Subbian, 2021
Manipulation of stress granule formation (SGs)
4a	MERS-CoV	Preventing SG formation by binding to viral dsRNA and impairing dsRNA-mediated PKR activation	Nakagawa et al., 2018
NSP15	SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV	Antagonizing the formation of chemical-induced SGs	Gao et al., 2021
N	SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV	Impairing dsRNA-triggered SG formation by associating with the PKR and G3BP1	Gordon et al., 2020; Zheng et al., 2021
	MERS-CoV	Blocking SG formation by interacting with PKR but not G3BP1	Zheng et al., 2021