Table 1.

Key outcomes of various ES studies.

Study Design	Type of ES	ES Field Strength	Exposure Duration	Model	Key Outcome	Reference
In vitro	PC	1, 3, and 5 V	15, 30, and 60 min	HDF	ES increased HDF proliferation with increased expression of PDGFA, FGF2, and TGF-β1.	[52]
In vitro	PC	200 μA Duty cycle: 0%, 10%, 50%, 90%	24 h	HDF	Duty cycle of 10% was viable for HDF and promoted transdifferentiation into myofibroblast.	[66]
In vivo	PC	8 mA	30 min	Rat	Angiogenesis and fibroplasia were promoted.	[90]
In vivo	PC	50 μA	11 days	Rat	Increased fibroplasia, re-epithelisation and angiogenesis.	[91]
RCT	DC	1.48 ± 0.98 mA	An hour daily, 3 d/wk for 4 wk	Type 2 diabetic patients	Reduced wound surface area with improved blood flow to wound.	[88]
Case series	PC	$12 \pm$ 1 V	30 min each session, thrice daily, until wound closed	Chronic wounds of various aetiologies	Reduced wound surface area and pain.	[92]
RCT	HVMPC	0.25 A	30 min each session, 4 sessions given	Pressure ulcers	Increased angiogenesis and reduced wound area.	[93]
RCT	HVMPC	subjective dosage (minimum voltage of 100 V)	50 min each session, until detachment of dressing	Burn wounds	ES promoted wound healing and reduced pain in the donor site of the skin graft.	[89]
RCT	PC	20 mA	30 min every other day for 4 weeks	Diabetic foot ulcers	Reduced wound volume and increased blood flow.	[94]