Table 4.

Principal biological activities of CEO.

Pharmaceutical Form	Bioactivity	Mechanism	Model	Dose	References
Clove essential oil C, HD, SD	Analgesic	Mediation through opioidergic and cholinergic systems Inhibits voltage-gated Na+ channels and activation of TRPV1	Adult male Wistar rats [28] Yellowtail clownfish Amphiprion clarkia [88]	40–500 µL/L	[28,88]
	Anesthetic	Inhibits voltage-gated Na+ channels and activation of TRPV1 Reduces contraction of dorsal muscle	Wistar rats [28] Cardinal tetra Paracheirodon axelrodi Angelfish Pterophyllum scalare [89] Cherax quadricarinatus [90] Adult male Tilapia del Nilo Oreochromis niloticus [91]	50–500 μL/L	[28,89,90,91]
	Anticancer	Decreases levels of inflammatory biomarkers Inhibits tissue remodeling in protein molecules Inhibits pro-inflammatory genes and proteins such as pro-inflammatory cytokines Cytotoxic Genotoxic Induces apoptosis Antiproliferative activity Growth inhibition Changes polarization of cancer cells Inhibits proton pumps and ATP production	Human dermal fibroblasts [87], cancer cell lines (cervical, liver, breast, prostate, colon, erythroleukemia, lung) [92,93,94,95,96,97]	13–127 μg/mL	[87,92,93,94,95,96,97]
	Anticoagulant	Delays time for blood coagulation	Male Swiss mice (Mus musculus) [98]	0.0625–4 mg/mL	[98]
	Antidiarrheal	Ability to balance gut microbiota Helps intestinal motility Potentiates digestive process due to its ability to increase enzyme activity and nitrogen absorption Regulates neurotransmitters such as histamine and dopamine; Ca2+ activates Cl channel inhibitor TMEM16A, causing reduced intestinal motility in mice	Male Swiss mice (M. musculus) [98]	50–100 mg/kg	[98]
	Anti-inflammatory	Inhibits release or synthesis of inflammation-mediating compounds Decreases levels of inflammatory biomarkers Inhibits tissue remodeling proteins Inhibits level of expression of genes and proteins, pro-inflammatory proteins such as cytokines Inhibits prostaglandin synthesis and neutrophil chemotaxis Inhibits factor NF-kB in activation of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) Inhibits expression of cyclooxygenase (COX-2)	Rats [99] Human dermal fibroblasts [87] BALB/c mice [26]	100–250 mg/kg	[26,87,99]
	Antimicrobial	Inhibits growth Destabilizes membrane permeability and integrity Ruptures phospholipid membrane, resulting in electron transport inhibition, protein translocation, phosphorylation, and other enzymatic activity, leading to cell death	Candida albicans, Klebsiella spp., E. coli, Proteus spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Erwinia spp., S. aureus, Listeria innocua, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus reuteri, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Aspergillus niger, Tetrahymena pyriformis [92,96,97,99,100]	1.25–6.25 mg/ mL	[92,96,97,99,100]
	Antinociceptive	Inhibits COX-2 and transient vanilloid receptor potential (TRPV) by high-voltage inhibition of Ca2+ currents in primary neurons	Female Wistar rats [101]	100 μg/kg	[101]
	Antioxidant	Radical scavenging activity Inhibits lipid peroxidation Transfers electrons or hydrogen atoms to neutralize free radicals and block oxidative processes Protective effect on ROS-induced biochemical changes and histopathological damage, balance between oxidant/antioxidant ratio	DPPH, β-carotene-linoleate, ABTS, FRAP, Folin–Ciocalteu, flavones and flavonols, flavonoids, TAC [93,97,99,100,102]. Wistar rats/blood, histopathological study [102]	30–600 μg/mL	[93,97,99,100,102]
	Antipyretic	Reduces chemotaxis Inhibits COX-1 and COX-2	Male Swiss mice (M. musculus) [98]	50–100 mg/kg	[98]
	Hemolytic	Interacts with the cell membrane	Male Swiss mice (M. musculus) [98]	0.625–2.5 mg/m	[98]
	Insecticide Contact toxicity Repellent Larval toxicity Oviposition deterrence	Inhibits life cycle Inhibits development Attacks three possible molecular targets (transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, octopamine receptors, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors) Neurotoxic action Increases cell membrane permeability, breaking cytoplasmic membrane and interacting with proteins Hydroxyl group present in eugenol binds to proteins and affects their properties Inhibits enzymes ATPase, histidine decarboxylase, amylase, and protease Absorption by cuticular lipids, then enters hemocoel and nervous system, or tracheal system absorbs it	Ctenocephalides felis felis, Rhopalosiphum maidis, Coccinellidae, Coleomegilla maculate, Culex pipiens, Blattella germanica, Ae. j. japonicus [103,104,105,106,107]	4 mL/cm 5–80 mg/L	[103,104,105,106,107]
Microemulsion SD nmslyyds 303 nm Montanov 202™ Phase inversion method	Anti-inflammatory	Re-epithelialization and formation of dermis and epidermis. increases collagen synthesis	m5S cell line Male Wistar rats [27]	0.2 g	[27]
Nanoemulsion C nmslyyds 6–27 nm Tween 20 and 80 Spontaneous self-emulsification	Antimicrobial	Destabilizes membrane permeability	S. aureus [108]	19–24 μg/m	[108]
	Anticancer	Antiproliferative effect Cytotoxic activity Induces necrosis	Thyroid cancer cell line [108]	19–24 μg/mL	[108]
Nanoemulsion C nmslyyds 29.1 nm Tween-80 Spontaneous self-emulsification	Wound healing	Reduces wound epithelialization period Increases leucine content Increases collagen content Induces neovascularization	Female albino Wistar rats [109]	0.61 mg/g	[109]

Source: ^C commercial CEO, ^SD steam distillation, ^HD hydrodistillation.