Table 3.

Association between pandemic exposure and diabetes self-care and outcomes and how these associations differed by income and gender.

	Specific diet	Exercise	Blood glucose monitoring	Medication adherence to insulin	Medication adherence to diabetes pills	Cost-related non-adherence	HbA1c	Systolic blood pressure	Diabetes distress
			β estimate [95% CI]			OR [95% CI]	β estimate [95% CI]		OR [95% CI]
Time
Pre-pandemic	REFERENCE
COVID-19 (May–Sept)	0.2	1.2	0.6	0.00	0.01	0.6	−0.4	13.3	0.8
	[−0.2 to 0.7]	[0.7–1.8]**	[−0.3 to 1.5]	[−0.4 to 0.4]	[−0.4 to 0.4]	[0.3–1.2]	[−1.0 to 0.2]	[8.4–18.2]**	[0.4–1.7]
COVID-19 (Oct–Jan)	0.3	0.4	0.4	0.12	−0.05	0.8	−1.1	15 [10.3–19.7]**	0.81
	[−0.1 to 0.8]	[−0.1 to 1.0]	[−0.5 to 1.4]	[−0.2 to 0.5]	[−0.4 to 0.3]	[0.4–1.5]	[−1.8 to −0.4]**		[0.4–1.6]
Gender
Male	REFERENCE
Female	0.6	−0.5	0.4	0.12	−0.2	0.9	−0.3	−8.0	1.9
	[0.2–1.0]**	[−0.9 to −0.04]*	[−0.2 to 1.1]	[−0.2 to 0.4]	[−0.5 to 0.1]	[0.5–1.6]	[−0.8 to 0.1]	[−12.0 to −4.1]**	[1.1–3.4]*
Income
Low	0.1	0.01	0.1	0.02	−0.13	1.2	0.4	2.7	0.47
	[−0.3 to 0.6]	[−0.5 to 0.5]	[−0.5 to 0.7]	[−0.4 to 0.4]	[−0.6 to 0.3]	[0.6–2.3]	[−0.03 to 0.8]	[−2.3 to 7.9]	[0.2–1.0]
Middle	0.2	−0.1	−0.07	−0.15	0.06	1.7	0.15	−0.2	0.7
	[−0.2 to 0.7]	[−0.6 to 0.4]	[−0.7 to 0.5]	[−0.5 to 0.2]	[−0.3 to 0.4]	[0.9–3.2]	[−0.2 to 0.5]	[−4.9 to 4.3]	[0.3–1.4]
High	REFERENCE

Models adjusted for age, number of chronic conditions, number of unmet social needs, marital status, and years living with diabetes.

^*P < 0.05.

^**P < 0.01.