Table 10.
Model coefficients of the effects of HM on ∆Costs
| Dependent variables | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variables | (1) ∆Costs |
(2) ∆Costs |
(3) ∆Costs |
(4) ∆Costs |
(5) ∆Costs |
(6) ∆Costs |
| Direct effects | ||||||
| HM |
−0.78 (0.50) |
0.02 (0.59) |
−0.07 (0.52) |
−0.77 (0.50) |
0.22 (0.53) |
0.23 (0.53) |
| ∆Certainty | – |
−0.28** (0.12) |
– | – |
−0.16 (0.11) |
−0.15 (0.11) |
| ∆TaxRisk | – | – |
0.47*** (0.15) |
– |
0.39** (0.17) |
0.40*** (0.15) |
| ∆TRM | – | – | – |
0.28 (0.19) |
0.05 (0.24) |
– |
| Years |
0.10 (0.12) |
0.11 (0.11) |
0.03 (0.09) |
0.11 (0.11) |
0.05 (0.08) |
0.04 (0.08) |
| Constant |
0.43 (1.08) |
0.27 (0.99) |
0.51 (0.79) |
0.01 (1.03) |
0.33 (0.72) |
0.41 (0.76) |
| R2 | 0.14 | 0.24 | 0.35 | 0.17 | 0.33 | 0.37 |
| Indirect effects | ||||||
|
HM via ∆Certainty |
– |
−0.76** (0.32) |
– | – |
−0.41 (0.30) |
−0.40 (0.28) |
|
HM via ∆TaxRisk |
– | – |
−0.71** (0.29) |
– |
−0.59** (0.27) |
−0.25 (0.28) |
|
HM via ∆TRM |
– | – | – |
−0.007 (0.097) |
−0.001 (0.019) |
– |
|
HM via ∆Certainty via ∆TaxRisk |
– | – | – | – | – |
−0.353* (0.187) |
|
HM (total indirect) |
– | – | – | – |
−1.000*** (0.333) |
−1.008*** (0.343) |
| Total effects | ||||||
| HM |
−0.777 (0.501) |
−0.777 (0.501) |
−0.777 (0.501) |
−0.777 (0.501) |
−0.777 (0.501) |
−0.777 (0.501) |
Direct effects of HM on ∆Certainty and ∆TaxRisk, and on ∆TRM are displayed in Tables 7 and 9, respectively. Coefficients and standard errors (in parentheses) were estimated using maximum likelihood estimation with robust standard errors. The dummy variable HM represents HM participation. ∆Costs is the perceived change in compliance costs. ∆Certainty and ∆TaxRisk reflect perceived changes in tax certainty and tax risk, respectively. ∆TRM represents the perceived changes in the quality of tax risk management. Years represents the timeframe for which participants were asked to indicate change. Direct effects correspond to parameter estimates in multiple regressions and represent the effects net of any effect by control variables included in the model. Indirect effects displayed in Column 2–5 of HM represent the simple mediation effects and equal the product of the direct effects of HM on the mediator (see Tables 7 and 9) and of the mediator on ∆Costs (Column 2–5). Indirect effects displayed in Column 6 include the coefficients of a dual mediation, which is the product of the effect of HM on ∆Certainty, of ∆Certainty on ∆TaxRisk, and of ∆TaxRisk on ∆Costs. Total effects of HM represent the sum of the direct and indirect effects and corresponds to the coefficient of HM in a regression on ∆Costs without controlling for any mediator (Column 1). ***, **, and * indicate two-tailed statistical significance at the 1, 5, and 10% level, respectively.