Table 4.

Comparison between MSC and exosome transplantation in osteoporosis treatment

Therapies characteristic	MSC transplantation	Exosome transplantation
Sources	Various tissues and organs	Mostly all cell types, including MSCs
Features	Self-renewal ability and multiple differentiation potential	Ability to regulate the microenvironment (transcriptional factors, signaling pathways, etc.)
Immunological rejection	Little	None
Isolation and purification	Easy (high sample volumes)	Costly and time-consuming (low purity)
Operation difficulty	Normal	Complex