Table 1.

The role of cytokines in the disease pathogenesis.

Cytokine	Role in the pathogenesis of malaria
TNF alpha	Increases phagocytic uptake of parasites
	Elevated levels correlate with the severity of malaria
	May be associated with cerebral malaria
	Increases intracellular calcium levels and decreases the count of intracellular parasites
IFN gamma	Type I IFN signaling limits CD4+ T helper cell activity during the blood infection stage
	Type I IFNs stimulate the release of proinflammatory cytokines
	Participates in the control of infection
	Chronic high levels may lead to immune suppression
IL-6	Participates in immunoglobulin synthesis
	Promotes the expression of ICOS in the Tfh cells and activates the differentiation of B cells
	Is only involved in the early stages of infection
	Could be regarded as marker for severe malaria
	Its levels increase during the acute phase of malaria that persist through convalescence
IL-8	Correlates with disease severity
	Its levels increase during the acute phase of malaria that persist through convalescence
IL-10	Inhibits protective immune responses against secondary infection
	Its inhibition is associated with increased CD4+ T cell activity, the release of IFN-γ, and decreased parasitemia
	P. falciparum-specific IL-10-positive T cells (IFN-γ- TNF-) correlate with the risk of clinical malaria
	Elevated intracellular levels in CD4+ T cells have a protective effect against P. falciparum infection and on hemoglobin levels at delivery
IL-4	Is an important regulator of Th2 responses
	Limits both the inflammatory process and Th1 responses
	Has a protective role in severe forms of malaria
	Could be considered a risk factor for severe forms of malaria
TGF-beta	Has an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting Th1 cell differentiation
	Negatively correlates with the severity of P. falciparum infection
	Modulates the function of several immune cells after a malaria infection, including dendritic cells, regulatory T cells, and T-helper cells (Th17)
	Is involved in the expansion of FoxP3 Tregs