Table 2. Univariate analyses examining the relationship between COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and sociodemographic, complacency, confidence, and other psychological factors.
| Beta | SE | t | p-value | Partial η2 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sociodemographic factors | (R2: 0.13) | ||||
| Age | -0.01 | 0.00 | -6.85 | <0.001* | 0.011 |
| Gender (man/womana) | -0.22 | 0.04 | -6.15 | <0.001* | 0.011 |
| Education (years) | |||||
| Some high school or less | 0.53 | 0.14 | 3.67 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| Completed high school | 0.27 | 0.07 | 3.99 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| Some college/university | 0.21 | 0.06 | 3.36 | 0.001* | 0.00 |
| Completed college/university | 0.12 | 0.05 | 2.61 | 0.009* | 0.00 |
| Post graduate or highera | - | - | - | - | - |
| Race | |||||
| Indigenous (First Nations, Inuit or Métis) | 0.54 | 0.17 | 3.15 | 0.002* | 0.00 |
| Black | 0.94 | 0.09 | 10.97 | <0.001* | 0.021 |
| East Asian | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.84 | 0.402 | 0.00 |
| Latinx | 0.11 | 0.07 | 1.57 | 0.116 | 0.00 |
| South Asian | 0.02 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.896 | 0.00 |
| Other | 0.28 | 0.07 | 3.98 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| Whitea | - | - | - | - | - |
| Religion (yes/noa) | -0.02 | 0.04 | -0.51 | 0.609 | 0.00 |
| Region (states and provinces) | |||||
| California | -0.07 | 0.06 | -1.16 | 0.248 | 0.00 |
| Florida | 0.10 | 0.07 | 1.42 | 0.155 | 0.00 |
| New York | -0.07 | 0.06 | -1.19 | 0.234 | 0.00 |
| Texas | -0.01 | 0.07 | -0.19 | 0.853 | 0.00 |
| Atlantic Provinces | -0.24 | 0.11 | -2.20 | 0.028 | 0.00 |
| Prairie Provinces | -0.04 | 0.08 | -0.50 | 0.615 | 0.00 |
| British Columbia | -0.05 | 0.08 | -0.57 | 0.570 | 0.00 |
| Ontarioa | - | - | - | - | - |
| Population density | |||||
| 1,000 or less | 0.39 | 0.11 | 3.61 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| 1,000 to 29,999 | 0.14 | 0.06 | 2.40 | 0.016 | 0.00 |
| 30,000 to 99,999 | 0.21 | 0.05 | 4.31 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| 100,000 or morea | - | - | - | - | - |
| Political affiliation | 0.32 | 0.02 | 16.32 | <0.001* | 0.031 |
| Healthcare worker status (yes/noa) | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.32 | 0.749 | 0.00 |
| Employment status | |||||
| Unemployed | -0.06 | 0.06 | -0.98 | 0.327 | 0.00 |
| Employeda | - | - | - | - | - |
| Student | -0.24 | 0.09 | -2.80 | 0.005* | 0.00 |
| Retired | -0.40 | 0.06 | -6.70 | <0.001* | 0.011 |
| Household income | |||||
| Less than $20,000 | 0.37 | 0.08 | 4.59 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| $20,000-$59,999 | 0.28 | 0.05 | 5.61 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| $60,000-$99,999a | - | - | - | - | - |
| $100,000-$139,999 | -0.07 | 0.05 | -1.35 | 0.178 | 0.00 |
| $140,000 or more | -0.24 | 0.05 | -4.46 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| Complacency factors | (R2: 0.21) | ||||
| Perceived susceptibility to infectious disease | -0.05 | 0.02 | -2.94 | 0.003* | 0.00 |
| Perceived seriousness of COVID-19 | -0.68 | 0.02 | -28.01 | <0.001* | 0.122 |
| Perceived safety of social distancing measures | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.17 | 0.863 | 0.00 |
| Perceived safety of going out in the community | 0.04 | 0.02 | 2.34 | 0.020 | 0.00 |
| Perceived likelihood of more waves of COVID-19 | -0.11 | 0.02 | -4.63 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| Tested positive for COVID-19 (self) (Tested positive/ Not tested or tested negativea) | -0.07 | 0.04 | -1.81 | 0.071 | 0.00 |
| Tested positive for COVID-19 (someone close) (Tested positive/ Not tested or tested negativea) | -0.21 | 0.04 | -4.80 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| COVID-19 health risk factorsb | -0.11 | 0.02 | -6.66 | <0.001* | 0.011 |
| Confidence factors | (R2: 0.38) | ||||
| Mistrust of vaccine benefit | 0.67 | 0.01 | 51.64 | <0.001* | 0.263 |
| Worries over unforeseen future effects | 0.04 | 0.02 | 2.58 | 0.010 | 0.00 |
| Concerns about commercial profiteering | 0.11 | 0.02 | 7.06 | <0.001* | 0.011 |
| Preference for natural immunity | 0.11 | 0.02 | 7.38 | <0.001* | 0.011 |
| Positive attitudes toward holistic health approaches | -0.01 | 0.00 | -2.59 | 0.010 | 0.00 |
| Positive attitudes toward complementary and alternative medicine | -0.01 | 0.00 | -3.00 | 0.003* | 0.00 |
| Mistrust in Government’s management of COVID-19 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 5.74 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| Other psychological factors | (R2: 0.11) | ||||
| TIPI, Extraversion | 0.03 | 0.02 | 1.76 | 0.079 | 0.00 |
| TIPI, Agreeable | 0.06 | 0.02 | 2.92 | 0.004* | 0.00 |
| TIPI, Conscientiousness | -0.03 | 0.02 | -1.52 | 0.128 | 0.00 |
| TIPI, Emotional stability | -0.05 | 0.02 | -2.37 | 0.018 | 0.00 |
| TIPI, Openness to experience | -0.03 | 0.02 | -1.55 | 0.121 | 0.00 |
| RPS, Risk propensity | 0.24 | 0.02 | 14.16 | <0.001* | 0.031 |
| MISS, Suggestibility | 0.00 | 0.00 | -1.21 | 0.226 | 0.00 |
| Attitudes toward authority | 0.00 | 0.00 | -1.57 | 0.116 | 0.00 |
| General trust in others | -0.30 | 0.03 | -10.88 | <0.001* | 0.021 |
| LOC, Internal | -0.01 | 0.01 | -1.99 | 0.047 | 0.00 |
| LOC, Chance | -0.03 | 0.01 | -4.06 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| LOC, Powerful others | 0.01 | 0.01 | 1.96 | 0.050 | 0.00 |
| PANAS, Positive affect score | -0.01 | 0.00 | -2.67 | 0.008* | 0.00 |
| PANAS, Negative affect score | 0.02 | 0.00 | 4.76 | <0.001* | 0.00 |
| ECR, Attachment anxiety subscale | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.88 | 0.377 | 0.00 |
| ECR, Attachment avoidance subscale | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.78 | 0.437 | 0.00 |
| Impact of COVID-19 on mental health | -0.20 | 0.01 | -15.39 | <0.001* | 0.031 |
SE, Standard Error; TIPI, Ten-Item Personality Inventory; RPS, Risk Propensity Scale; MISS, Multidimensional Iowa Suggestibility Scale; LOC, Brief Locus-of-Control Scale; PANAS, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule; ECR, Experiences in Close Relationship.
aReference variable.
bOne point was assigned for each health risk factor (i.e., heart disease, hypertension, lung disease, diabetes, cancer, chronic kidney disease, obesity, and weakened immune system) to derive a total health risk factor score for COVID-19.
*p<0.010 (0.05/4 models); 1Small effect (η2 = 0.01); 2Medium effect (η2 = 0.06); 3Large effect (η2 = 0.14).