Table 3.

Modifiable and non-modifiable osteoporosis risk factors

Non-modifiable risk factors	Previous fracture Parental history of osteoporosis History of early menopause (below age of 45 years)
Modifiable risk factors	Low BMI (< 20 kg/m2) Smoking Low bone mineral density Alcohol intake
Co-existing diseases	Diabetes Inflammatory rheumatic diseases (RA or SLE) Inflammatory bowel disease and malabsorption Institutionalised patients with epilepsy Human immunodeficiency virus Primary hyperparathyroidism and endocrine diseases Chronic liver disease Neurological diseases (including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, stroke) Moderate to severe chronic kidney disease Asthma
Drug therapy	Long-term antidepressants Antiepileptics Aromatase inhibitors Long-term DMPA GnRH agonists (in men with prostate cancer) PPIs Oral glucocorticoids TZDs

RA, rheumatoid arthritis; SLE, systemic lupus erythematosus; DMPA, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate; GnRH, gonadotropin-releasing hormone; PPIs, proton pump inhibitors; TZD, thiazolidinediones