Table 1.

An Overview on Nanomaterials-Based Optical Methods for Exosome Detection

Methods	Type of Nanomaterials	Functions	Cancer Types	Target Biomarkers	Response Time (min)	Detection Limit (Particles/μL)	Linear Range (Particles/μL)	Ref.
Fluorescence	Biorecognition elements-modified MNPs	Capturing exosomes and transforming the detection of exosomes into the detection of DNA with DNA-based signal amplification	Liver cancer	CD63	Not reported	0.1	1–1 × 104	[83]
			Not reported	CD63 and lipid bilayer	160	1.29 × 103	5.5 × 103–1.1 × 107	[84]
			Lung cancer	CD63	65	1 × 105	1 × 107–1 × 109	[85]
			Lung cancer	CD63	95	0.1	0.3–1 × 104	[86]
			Liver cancer	CD63	255	1.16 × 103	1.75 × 103–7 × 106	[90]
			Cervical cancer	CD63 and lipid bilayer	245	480	1.66 × 103–1.66 × 106	[91]
			Prostate cancer	PSMA	210	1 × 102	1 × 103–1 × 108	[92]
	QDs	Fluorescence labels	Lung cancer	EpCAM	60	0.013	5 × 102–5 ×109	[94]
			Oral squamous Cell carcinoma	CD63	30	5 × 102	5.0×102 – 1.0×105	[95]
			Pancreatic cancer	GPC-1	90	Not reported	1.0×104 – 1.0×106	[96]
			Human tongue squamous cell carcinoma	Lipid bilayer	65	2 × 103	4 × 103–2 × 105	[97]
	CuNPs		Liver cancer	CD63 and lipid bilayer	120	4.8 × 104	7.5 × 104–1.5 × 107	[98]
	AuNPs	Nanoquenchers	Leukemia cell	CD63 and nucleolin	180	1 × 102	1 × 103–1 × 105	[88]
	GO		Breast cancer	PSMA	40	1.6 × 102	1.6 × 102–1.6 × 105	[101]
			Colorectal cancer	CD63 and EpCAM	40	2.1 × 104	3 × 104–6 × 105	[102]
			Breast cancer	GPC-1	128	6.56 × 104	7.8 × 104–3.9 × 109	[103]
	MOS2-MWCNTs		Breast cancer	CD63	70	1.48 × 103	0–1.11 × 104	[104]
	Ti3C2 MXenes	Nanoquenchers and luminescent emitters	Breast cancer	CD63	70	1.4	10–1 × 106	[105]
	AuNRs UCNPs	Quenching the luminescence of UCNPs by AuNRs	Breast cancer	CD63	250	8.2	20–2.0 × 106	[99]
Colorimetry	AuNPs	Nanocarriers for enzymes	Colorectal cancer	A33 and EpCAM	220	6.7 × 103	9.75 × 103–1.95 × 106	[114]
	AuNPs	Color indicators	Nasopharyngeal carcinoma	CD63, CD9, CD81, LMP1 and EGFR	120	0.1	0.1–1 × 105	[122]
	AuNRs		Breast cancer	CD63 and lipid bilayer	Not reported	1.6 × 102	1.4 × 103–2.8×105	[127]
	Au NBP@ MnO2 NSs		Breast cancer	CD63	155	1.35 × 102	8.5 × 102–8.5 × 104	[128]
	C-IONPs	Nanozymes	Ovarian cancer	CD63		1.25 × 103	6.25 × 102–1.0 × 104	[129]
	g-C3N4 nanosheets	Peroxidase-mimetic enzyme	Breast cancer	CD63	30	1.352 × 106	1.9 × 106–3.38 × 107	[132]
	SWCNTs		Breast cancer	CD63	40	5.2 × 105	1.84 × 106–2.21 × 107	[133]
	CuCo2O4 nanorods		Breast cancer	CD63	160	4.5 × 103	5.6 × 104–8.9 × 105	[134]
SPR	GO	Chip substrate	Lung cancer	PD-L1	50	0.02	10–1.0 × 105	[145]
	MNPs	Nanolabels	Lung cancer	CD63, EGFR and EpCAM	55	2.37 × 104	3.125 × 104–100 × 104	[148]
	AuNPs		Breast cancer	CD63	155	5	Not reported	[151]
SERS	AuNPs	Raman reporters with LSPR	Pancreatic cancer	CD63, GPC-1, EpCAM and CD44V6	150	Not reported	Not reported	[164]
	Polydopamine-encapsulated Au@Ag NPs		Pancreatic cancer	CD63, GPC-1, EGFR, EpCAM, and MIF	150	Not reported	0.544–27.2	[161]
	AuNS@4-MBA@Au		Hepatocellular Carcinoma	CD9 and lipid bilayer	50	27	40–4.0 × 107	[162]
	Gold-silver-silver core shell-shell nanotrepangs		Hepatocellular Carcinoma	PSMA, Her2 and AFP	120	35	1–1 × 107	[168]
	TP-DNA@AuNPs	Electromagnetic hot spots to enhance Raman signals	Breast cancer	EpCAM	150	110	1 × 103–1 × 107	[169]

Abbreviations: QDs, quantum dots; CuNPs, copper nanoparticles; AuNPs, gold nanoparticles; GO, graphene oxide; MWCNTs, multiwall carbon nanotubes; AuNRs, gold nanorods; UCNPs, upconversion nanoparticles; Au NBP@MnO₂ NSs, gold nanobipyramid@MnO₂ nanosheet nanostructures; C-IONPs, carboxyl group-functionalized iron oxide nanoparticles; SWCNTs, single-walled carbon nanotubes; Au@PDA NPs, polydopamine-functionalized gold nanoparticle; TP-DNA, triangular pyramid DNA; AuNS@4-MBA@Au, gold nanostar@4-mercaptobenzoic acid@nanoshell structures; PSMA, prostate-specific membrane antigen; GPC-1, glypican-1; EpCAM, epithelial cell adhesion molecule; LMP1, latent membrane protein 1; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; PD-L1, programmed death ligand-1; CD44V6, CD44 variant isoform 6; MIF, migration inhibitory factor.