Table 2.

An Overview on Nanomaterials-Based Electrochemical Methods for Exosome Detection

Methods	Type of Nanomaterials	Functions	Cancer Types	Target Biomarkers	Response Time (min)	Detection Limit (Particles/μL)	Linear Range (Particles/μL)	Ref.
Electrochemistry (direct detection)	AuNPs	Improving the large surface area, accelerating electrical conductivity and facilitating the immobilization of biorecognition elements	Breast cancer	CD63	180	4.82 × 102	5 × 102–5 × 103	[181]
	BPNSs and MOFs		Breast cancer	CD63	Not reported	1 × 102	1.3 × 102–2.6 × 105	[182]
Electrochemistry (sandwich detection)	AuNPs	Nanocarriers for enzymes, electroactive molecules	Liver cancer	CD63	255	16.6	21.6–7.5 × 104	[189]
	Zr-MOF		Glioblastoma	EGFR, EGFRvIII, and phosphate groups outside of exosomes	150	7.83 × 103	9.5 × 103–1.9 × 107	[190]
	Zr-MOF and ZIF-8		Breast cancer	CD63 and phosphate groups outside of exosomes	190	0.3	1–1 × 105	[191]
	ZIF-8		Breast cancer	CD63 and PD-L1	245	0.334	1–1 × 107	[192]
	COFs@Au NPs		Colorectal cancer	CD63 and amino acid residues outside of exosomes	170	1.6 × 102	5 × 102–5 × 107	[193]
	Au-NPFe2O3NC	Nanozymes to catalyze the redox reaction	Placental choriocarcinoma	CD63 and PLAP	90	1	1–1 × 104	[194]
	Ti3C2 MXene@PB	Showing electroactive properties or consisting of electroactive ions	Ovarian cancer	CD63	120	2.29 × 102	5 × 102–5.0 × 105	[195]
	CdSe QDs		Colorectal adenocarcinoma	CD63, HER-2 and FAM134B	130	1 × 102	1 × 102–1 × 107	[196]
Electrochemiluminescence	Ru(II) markers-loaded SiNPs	Nanomaterials acts as nanocarriers for molecules	Hepatocellular carcinoma	CD63	120	60	2 × 102–7.5 ×104	[212]
	CdS:Eu QDs	Electrochemiluminescence emitter	Breast cancer	CD63	240	74.1	3.4 × 102–1.7 × 104	[210]
	CdS QDs@CaCO3		Breast cancer	EpCAM	180	21	50–1 × 105	[212]
	g-C3N4@Galinstan-PDA		Cervical cancer	GPC-1	120	31	50–1 × 105	[211]
	BPQDs@ Ti3C2 MXene	Coreactants	Breast cancer	CD63 and EpCAM	100	37	1.1 × 102–1.1 × 107	[214]
	AuNPs@ Ti3C2 MXene	Nanocatalysts	Cervical cancer	CD63	240	30	1 × 102–1 × 105	[215]
	Ti3C2 MXene		Breast cancer	EpCAM	240	1.25 × 102	5 × 102–5 × 106	[213]
	AuNPs@ g-C3N4		Ovarian cancer	phosphatidylserine	120	39	1 × 102–1 × 107	[216]

Abbreviations: BPNSs, black phosphorus nanosheets; AuNPs, gold nanoparticles; MOFs, metal organic frameworks; COFs, covalent organic frameworks; Au-NPFe₂O₃NC, gold-loaded ferric oxide nanocubes; PB, Prussian blue; QDs, quantum dots; PDA, polydopamine; BPQDs, black phosphorus quantum dots; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; EGFRvIII, epidermal growth factor receptor variant (v) III mutation; PD-L1, programmed death ligand-1; PLAP, placental alkaline phosphatase; EpCAM, epithelial cell adhesion molecule; GPC-1, glypican-1.