Table 2.
Study design and sample characteristics of included studies
| First Author | Study design/Locationa | Sample characteristics | Race/Ethnicity | Recruitment and data source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bohnert et al. [28] | Case-cohort/USA |
N: 155,434; Age:18–59: 56.1% 60 + : 43.9%; Sex: 93.3% male |
Black: 16.4%; White: 71.8%; Other/Missing: 11.8%; Hispanic: 4.1% |
Veterans Health Administration (VHA) National Patient Care Database (2004–2008) Linked to National Death Index |
| Burns et al. [39] | Cross-sectional/Australia | N: 163; Age: Median: 21; Sex: 54.0% male | NR | Survey with young people (15–30 years) who used heroin from three inner-metropolitan Melbourne general practices (June–December 2000)Linked to the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme |
| Campbell et al. [51] | Cohort/USA | N: 396,452; Age: 51.83; Sex: 41.0% male | Asian: 9.7%; Black: 9.4%; Hispanic: 17.2%; Native American: 0.6%; Multi-racial: 4.5%; Other or unknown: 1.8%; White: 56.8% | KPNC’s Electronic Health Records database (2011–2014) |
| Carrà et al. [40] | Cross-sectional/Italy | N: 265; Age: Mean (SD): 35.4 (9.4); Sex: 79.0% male | NR |
Therapeutic community program participants Completed survey for the Psychiatric and Addictive Dual Disorders in Italy (PADDI- TC) project (2010) |
| Chahua et al. [41] | Cohort/Spain | N: 452; Age: Mean (SD): 26 (3.25); Sex: 27% male | NR | Subsample of the ‘ITINERE’ cohort of heroin users |
| Cheng et al. [29] | Cross-sectional/USA | N: 254; Age:18–44 years:57.5%, 45 years or older:42.5%; Sex: NR | White: 98.3%; Black: 0.4%; Other: 0.8% |
Prescription Pain Medication Dataset from the Utah Department of Health (2008–2009) Office of the Medical Examiner Linked to the Labour Commission database |
| Chua et al. [52] | Cohort/USA |
N: 2,752,612; Age: Mean (SD): 17.2 (2.5); Sex: 47.2% male |
NR | 2009–2017 IBM MarketScan Commercial Claims and Encounters database |
| Cochran et al. [53] | Cohort/USA | N: 297,634; Age:18–29:47.3%, 30–64: 52.7%; Sex: 28.7% male | White: 56.2%; Black: 28.2%; Hispanic: 12.1%; Other: 3.6% | Medicaid records from Pennsylvania Department of Human Services (2010–2012) |
| Connery et al. [42] | Cross-sectional/USA | N: 120; Age: Mean (SD): 34 (10.4); Sex: 59% male | White: 89%; Hispanic/Latinx: 7% | Inpatients for detoxification/stabilization unit at an academically affiliated psychiatric hospital |
| Darke et al. [15] | Cross-sectional/Australia | N: 615; Age: Mean (SD): 29.3 (7.8); Sex: 66.0% | NR | Survey with Australian Treatment Outcomes Study participants (2001–2002) |
| Dilokthornsakul et al. [61] | Nested case–control/USA |
N: 3264; Age: < 18–44 years: 55.0%, 45–65 years + : 45.0%; Sex: 30.0% |
NR | Colorado Medicaid claims database |
| Dunn et al. [54] | Cohort/USA | N: 9940; Age: Mean (SD): 54 (16.8); Sex: 40.4% male | NR |
Consortium to Study Opioid Risks and Trend (CONSORT) Study participants (1997–2005) Linked from automated health care data, electronic medical records, and medical-record reviews |
| Fendrich et al. [43] | Cohort/USA | N: 368; Age: mean: 35; Sex: 72.3% male | Non-hispanic white: 57.3%; Other: 42.7% | Addiction Health Evaluation and Disease (AHEAD) Management Study |
| Foley and Schwab-Reese [30] | Ecological/USA | N: NR; Age: NR; Sex: NR | NR |
Wide-ranging Online Data for Epidemiological Research from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Linked to Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) |
| Follman et al. [55] | Cohort/USA | N: 138,108; Age: Mean (SD): 43.4 (0.4); Sex: 52.4% male | NR | Truven Health MarketScan Research Database (Truven Health Analytics) |
| Gerhart et al. [31] | Ecological/USA | N: NR; Age: NR; Sex: NR | NR |
Personality data from adults who responded to the 44-item Big Five Inventory online Linked to Centers for Disease Control Wonder Database |
| Glanz et al. [56] | Case–control/USA |
N: 14,898; Age: Mean (SD): 56.3 (16.0); Sex: 39.7% male |
White: 72.4%; African American: 5.0%; Other: 7.4%; Missing: 15.2% | KPCO’s Electronic Health Records database (2006–2018) |
| Groenewald et al. [62] | Cross-sectional/USA | N: 1,146,412; Age: 11–14: 33.5%, 15–17: 66.5%; Sex: 52.4% male | NR | Truven Health MarketScan Commercial Claims and Encounters database (Truven Health Analytics) |
| Hartung et al. [57] | Case–control/USA | N: 3508; Age: < 30: 31.6%, ≥ 30: 68.4%; Sex: 50.3% male | White: 59.5%; Black: 3.3%; Asian: 0.5%; Native American: 2.5%; Other: 6.4%; Unknown: 27.8% |
Oregon Medicaid claims data Linked to vital statistics and prescription drug monitoring program (PDMP) data |
| Hasegawa et al. [44] | Cohort/USA | N: 19,709; Age: Median (IQR): 42 (27–55); Sex: 43.0% male | non-Hispanic White: 69%; non-Hispanic Black: 9%; Hispanic: 15%; Other: 4% | California and Florida State Emergency Department Databases and State Inpatient Databases (2010–2011) |
| Karmali et al. [58] | Cohort/USA | N: 3922; Age: 18–64: 75.8%, ≥ 65: 24.2%; Sex: 41.8% male | White: 63.6%; Hispanic: 14.8%; Other: 12.2%; Black: 9.4% | KPNC’s Electronic Health Records database (2009–2016) |
| Kline et al. [45] | Cross-sectional/USA | N: 432; Age: Mean (SD): 40.1 (11.6); Sex: 52.1% male | White: 52.2%; African American: 29.1%; Hispanic: 18.4% | Patients from New Jersey addiction treatment agencies |
| Kuo et al. [32] | Cohort/USA | N: 1,766,790; Age: Mean (SD): 52.2 (10.2); Sex: 50.9% male | White: 66.3%; Black: 19.9%; Hispanic: 9.8%; Other: 4.1% | Medicare and National Death Index linkage data |
| Lagisetty et al. [46] | Cohort/USA |
N: 485,513; Age: < 56: 23.3%, ≥ 56: 76.7%; Sex: 93.3% male |
White: 73.3%; Black: 19.1%; Other/Unknown: 7.6% Hispanic: 5.2%; Not Hispanic: 94.8% |
Veterans Health Administration (VHA) database |
| Leece et al. [33] | Case–control/Canada |
N: 1048; Age: Median (IQR): [Case: 42 (36–48)] [Control: 39 (31–45)]; Sex: 62.2% male |
NR |
Office of the Chief Coroner of Ontario Linked to Canadian Institute for Health Information Discharge Abstract Database (CIHI-DAD) |
| Madadi et al. [37] | Cross sectional/Canada |
N: 1359; Age: Median (IQR): [Opioid Deaths: 44 (35–51)] [Non-opioid deaths: 46 (37–54)]; Sex: 61.8% male |
NR | Office of the Chief Coroner of Ontario (2006–2008) |
| Maloney e al. [47] | Case–control/Australia | N: 1500; Age: Mean: 36.4; Sex: 60.0% male | NR | Used data from an ongoing, large retrospective case–control study of individuals previously enrolled in pharmacotherapy maintenance treatment for opioid dependence (2004–2008) |
| Mazereeuw et al. [38] | Case–control/Canada |
N: 1650; Age: Median (IQR): [Case: 49 (40–55)] [Control: 45 (38–52)]; Sex: 59.3% male |
NR | Office of the Chief Coroner of Ontario (1992–2014) |
| Nadpara et al. [48] | Nested case–control/USA | N: 45,153; Age: 18–54: 60.0%, 55–65 + : 40.0%; Sex: 52.1% male |
Non-Hispanic White: 5101 (56.8%) Non-Hispanic Black: 1383 (15.4%) Hispanic: 463 (5.2%) Other: 2040 (22.7%) |
PharMetrics Plus data set from the IMS Health Real-World Data Adjudicated Claims–US Database |
| Peterson et al. [49] | Cross-sectional/USA |
N: 61,170; Age: Mean (SE): 46.8 (0.19); Sex: 49.9% male |
NR | 2016 Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project National Readmissions Database (HCUP-NRD) |
| Pham et al. [34] | Case–control/USA |
N:1284; Age: Mean (SD): [Case: 44.5 (11.2)] [Control: 44.9 (11.6)]; Sex: 36.9% male |
White: 80.7%; Black or African American: 4.4%; American Indian or Alaskan Native: 9.4%; Other: 5.4% |
Oklahoma state Medicaid pharmacy and medical claims Linked to medical examiner reports from the Oklahoma State Department of Health’s (OSDH) Fatal Unintentional Poisoning Surveillance System |
| Ranapurwala et al. [35] | Cohort/USA |
N: 229,274 Age: Median: 34; Sex: 86.2% male |
White: 40.4% non-White: 59.6% |
Prison release data from the NC Department of Public Safety Linked to NC death records from the NC Division of Public Health |
| Roxburgh et al. [36] | Panel data/Australia |
N: 1437 Age: 14–39: 36.4%, 40–70 + : 63.6%; Sex: 50.1% male |
NR | National Coronial Information System (NCIS; 2001–2013) |
| Schiff et al. [59] | Cohort/USA | N:169,206; Age: < 35: 74.4%, ≥ 35: 25.6%; Sex: 0% male | White non-Hispanic: 63.5%; Other: 36.5% | Statewide linked database created in response to a mandate from the Massachusetts legislature and overseen by the Massachusetts Department of Public Health |
| Smolina et al. [60] | Case–control/Canada |
N: 59,784; Age: Mean (median): [Male: 39 (37)] [Female: 39 (36)]; Sex: 67.0% male |
NR | BC Provincial Overdose Cohort |
| Suffoletto and Zeigler [63] | Cohort/USA | N:4155; Age: Mean (SD): 34 (11); Sex: 35.21% male | White: 85.29%; Black: 11.82%; Asian: 0.26%; Other: 2.62% | Electronic health record (EHR) data from a single health system in western Pennsylvania |
| Yoon et al. [50] | Cross-sectional/USA | N: 6,686,905; Age: 12 + years; Sex: NR | NR | Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) all-payer inpatient-care database (2010) |
| Zedler et al. [64] | Case–control/USA |
N:8987; Age: Median (IQR): [Case: 62 (10)] [Control: 62 (16)]; Sex: 92.1% male |
Non-Hispanic white: 56.8%; Non-Hispanic black: 15.4%; Hispanic: 5.2%; Other: 22.6% | Veterans Health Administration (VHA) Medical SAS datasets |
aPanel data are multi-dimensional data involving measurements over time