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. 2021 Nov 18;4:1304. doi: 10.1038/s42003-021-02825-4

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — Sleep deprivation, as induced experimentally or in the context of habitual short sleep, has been found to be associated with alterations in the circulating numbers and/or activity of total leukocytes and specific cell subsets, elevation of systemic and tissue (e.g., brain) pro-inflammatory markers including cytokines (e.g., interleukins [IL], tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-α), chemokines and acute phase proteins (such as C reactive Protein [CRP]), altered antigen presentation (reduced dendritic cells, altered pattern of activating cytokines, etc.), lowered Th1 response, higher Th2 response, and reduced antibody production. Furthermore, altered monocytes responsiveness to immunological challenges such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) may contribute to sleep deprivation-associated immune modulation. Hypothesized links between immune dysregulation by sleep deprivation and the risk for immune-related diseases, such as infectious, cardiovascular, metabolic, and neurodegenerative and neoplastic diseases, are shown. The illustrations were modified from Servier Medical Art (http://smart.servier.com/), licensed under a Creative Common Attribution 3.0 Generic License. APC: antigen-presenting cells.