Table 1.
The microbial polysaccharides with antiviral activity.
| Source | Polysaccharide | Virus | Action | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Algae | ||||
| Coccomyxa gloeobotrydiformi | Acidic polysaccharide (CmAPS) | Human influenza A virus: A/H1N1, A/H2N2, A/H3N2 and A/H1N1 | Inhibited virus adsorption and virus-induced erythrocyte hemagglutination and hemolysis | (40) |
| Gracilaria lemaneiformis | Sulfated polysaccharide | Human influenza virus H1-364 | Prevented virus adsorption and replication | (59) |
| Gyrodinium impudicum | Sulfated exopolysaccharide (p-KG03) | Ecephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) | Inhibited EMCV infection in HeLa cells | (56) |
| Gyrodinium impudicum | Sulfated exopolysaccharide (p-KG03) | Influenza A virus | Inhibition of influenza virus replication | (60) |
| Himanthalia elongata | Polysaccharide | HSV-1 | N/A | (61) |
| Hydroclathrus clathratus | Sulfated polysaccharide HC-b1 | HSV-1, including acyclovir-resistant strain and clinical strain | Inhibited virus absorption and penetration, and inhibited replication of HSV-1 in host cells | (62) |
| Hydroclathrus clathratus | Sulfated polysaccharide | HSV-2 | N/A | (63) |
| Laminaria japonica | Polysaccharide | Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) | Inhibited RSV replication and induced IFN-α secretion | (64) |
| Laminaria japonica | LJ04 polysaccharide | Enterovirus 71 (EV71) | Inhibited viral proliferation, viral-induced apoptosis, and increased IFN-β expression | (65) |
| Laminaria japonica | Fucoidan | I-type influenza virus, adenovirus and parainfluenza virus I | N/A | (66) |
| Navicula directa | Naviculan | HSV-1, HSV-2, and Influenza A virus (H1N1) | Inhibited viral adsorption and penetration | (67) |
| Padina tetrastromatica | Polysaccharide | Herpes simplex virus type 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2) | Inhibited virus adsorption | (37) |
| Porphyridium cruentum | i Polysaccharide | Varicella zoster virus (VZV) | i Polysaccharide may block different phases of viral replication cycle | (43) |
| Porphyridium sp. | Cell-wall sulfated polysaccharide | HSV-1, HSV-2, and VZV | Inhibited virus adsorption and/or production of new virions in host cells | (38) |
| Porphyridium sp., P. aerugineum, and Rhodella reticulata, | Polysaccharide | Murine leukemia virus (MuLV) and murine sarcoma virus (MuSV-124) | Inhibition of virus adsorption | (68) |
| Saccharina japonica | Sulfated galactofucan (SJ-D-S-H) and glucuronomannan (Gn) | SARS-CoV-2 | Binding SARS-Cov-2 spike glycoprotein | (69) |
| Sargassum fusiforme | Polysaccharide SFP | Avian leukosis virus subgroup J (ALV-J) | Inhibited on virus adsorption phase by binding to virions and showed inhibitory effects both in vitro and in vivo | (70) |
| Sargassum patens | Sulfated polysaccharide SP-2a | HSV-1 | Inhibition of virus adsorption | (71) |
| Sargassum trichophyllum | Fucoidan | HSV-2 | Inhibition of virus adsorption and/or virus penetration steps | (72) |
| Ulva lactuca | Sulfated polysaccharide | Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) | Inhibited virus adsorption | (73) |
| Bacteria | ||||
| Arthrospira platensis | Spirulan-like molecules | Human cytomegalovirus, HSV-1, human herpesvirus type 6 and HIV-1 | Inhibited the herpesviruses at an entry phase, but at a stage later than virus entry for HIV | (44) |
| Arthrospira platensis | Calcium spirulan (Ca-SP) | HSV-1, human cytomegalovirus, measles virus, mumps virus, influenza A virus, and HIV-1 | Inhibited the penetration of virus into host cells | (74) |
| Arthrospira platensis | Exopolysaccharide | Koi herpesvirus (KHV) | Inhibited the viral replication | (75) |
| Bacillus licheniformis T14 | Exopolysaccharide | HSV-2 | Inhibited virus replication in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) | (76) |
| Lactobacillus delbrueckii OLL1073R-1 | Exopolysaccharide | Intestinal viruses | Increased the expression of the antiviral factors MxA and RNase L | (77) |
| Lactobacillus plantarum strain N4(Lp) | Exopolysaccharide | Transmissible Gastroenteritis Virus (TGEV) - Coronavirus | Inhibition effect that co-incubation with TGEV “Coronavirus” | (78) |
| Lactobacillus spp. | Exopolysaccharide 26a | Human adenovirus type 5 (HAdV-5) | Suppressed the formation and release of HAdV-5 virions | (41) |
| Nostoc flagelliforme | Nostoflan | HSV-1, HSV-2,HCMV, and influenza A virus | Blocked virus adsorption and/or virus penetration steps | (79) |
| Pseudomonas sp. WAK-1 | Extracellular glycosaminoglycan and sulfated polysaccharide | HSV-1, Influenza A virus | N/A | (80) |
| Fungi | ||||
| Auricularia auricula | Sulfated Auricularia auricula polysaccharide (AAPt) | Newcastle disease virus | Inhibit the cellular infectivity (in chicken embryo fibroblast, CEF) of NDV in three ways (pre-, post- and simultaneous-adding polysaccharide) | (42) |
| Fomes fomentarius | Polysaccharide BAS-F | Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) | N/A | (34) |
| Inonotous obiquus | Inonotus obliquus polysaccharides (IOPs) | Feline calicivirus (FCV) strain F9, feline herpesvirus 1, feline influenza virus H3N2 and H5N6, feline panleukopenia virus and feline infectious peritonitis virus | Antiviral effects on virus particles through blocking viral binding/absorption | (35) |
| Porodaedalea pini (Brot.) Murrill (syn. Phellinus pini) | Polysaccharide EP-AV1 and EP-AV2 | HSV-1, coxsackie virus B3 (CVB3) | N/A | (81) |
| Grifola frondosa | Heteropolysaccharide GFP1 | Enterovirus 71 | Inhibited EV71 replication and suppressed viral VP1 protein expression and genomic RNA synthesis | (82) |
| Lentinus edodes | Lentinan | Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV) | Inhibited viral replication | (83) |
| Cordyceps militaris | Acidic polysaccharide (APS) | Influenza A virus | Reduced virus titer the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and the lung of mice infected with influenza A virus | (39) |
N/A, Not available.