Figure 3.

ER stress impacts the function of other organelles and stress pathways. ER stress increases reactive oxygen species and imbalance in Ca²⁺ levels, both of which directly affect mitochondria through MAMs. The UPR activity may induce or inhibit autophagy depending on the cell type and context. The UPR pathway proteins may affect and be affected by cellular senescence. ER stress and Golgi stress may disrupt ER-to-Golgi and Golgi-to-ER protein transport that may impair insulin production and secretion in β-cells.