Table 2. Odds ratios (95% confidence interval) from multilevel models predicting being among poorest 20% in country and reporting difficulty living on income.
| Being among poorest 20% | Difficulty living on income | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 2A | Model 2B | Model 3A | Model 3B | |
| Low numeracy | ||||
| Incorrect or no answer (vs correct answer) | 1.70*** | - | 1.19*** | - |
| (1.33, 2.16) | (1.07, 1.32) | |||
| p<0.001 | p<0.001 | |||
| 10% is bigger than 1 in 10 (vs. correct answer) | - | 1.45*** | - | 1.03 |
| (1.20, 1.76) | (0.91, 1.29) | |||
| p<0.001 | p = 0.69 | |||
| 10% is smaller than 1 in 10 (vs correct answer) | - | 1.43*** | - | 1.09 |
| (1.25, 1.63) | (0.91, 1.29) | |||
| p<0.001 | p = 0.36 | |||
| No answer (vs. correct answer) | - | 1.83*** | - | 1.26*** |
| (1.39, 2.41) | (1.11, 1.42) | |||
| p<0.001 | p<0.001 | |||
| Demographic and control variables | ||||
| Poorest 20% (vs. richest 20%) | - | - | 6.59*** | 6.53*** |
| (4.85, 8.95) | (4.79, 8.89) | |||
| p<0.001 | p<0.001 | |||
| Second income quintile (vs. richest 20%) | - | - | 4.37*** | 4.35*** |
| (3.72, 5.13) | (3.71, 5.09) | |||
| p<0.001 | p<0.001 | |||
| Third income quintile (vs. richest 20%) | - | - | 2.73*** | 2.72*** |
| (2.22, 3.37) | (2.22, 3.33) | |||
| p<0.001 | p<0.001 | |||
| Fourth income quintile (vs. richest 20%) | - | - | 1.85*** | 1.84*** |
| (1.60, 2.14) | (1.60, 2.11) | |||
| p<0.001 | p<0.001 | |||
| Up to elementary school (vs. college) | 5.54*** | 5.41*** | 2.32*** | 2.28*** |
| (4.35, 7.06) | (4.29, 6.83) | (1.98, 2.71) | (1.97, 2.64) | |
| p<0.001 | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | |
| High school (vs. college) | 2.21*** | 2.19*** | 1.54*** | 1.53*** |
| (1.77, 2.76) | (1.76, 2.72) | (1.39, 1.71) | (1.39, 1.69) | |
| p<0.001 | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | |
| Female (vs. male) | 1.17* | 1.16 | 0.96 | 0.95 |
| (1.01, 1.36) | (.99, 1.35) | (0.90, 1.02) | (0.89, 1.01) | |
| p = 0.04 | p = 0.06 | p = 0.17 | p = 0.13 | |
| Age (divided by 10) | 0.96 | 0.96 | 1.04 | 1.04 |
| (0.87, 1.06) | (0.87, 1.05) | (0.99, 1.10) | (0.99, 1.10) | |
| p = 0.40 | p = 0.35 | p = 0.13 | p = 0.16 | |
| World Bank country income categories | ||||
| Low-income (vs. high-income) | 0.38*** | 0.38*** | 7.08*** | 7.11*** |
| (0.33, 0.45) | (0.33, 0.45) | (4.83, 10.38) | (4.85, 10.42) | |
| p<0.001 | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | |
| Lower middle income (vs. high-income) | 0.52*** | 0.52*** | 3.97*** | 3.96*** |
| (0.45, 0.60) | (0.44, 0.60) | (2.78, 5.68) | (2.77, 5.68) | |
| p<0.001 | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | |
| Upper middle income (vs. high-income) | 0.64*** | 0.64*** | 2.66*** | 2.65*** |
| (0.57, 0.72) | (0.57, 0.72) | (1.96, 3.60) | (1.96, 3.60) | |
| p<0.001 | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | p<0.001 | |
| N | 150,634 | 150,634 | 147,544 | 147,544 |
| Fixed effects ANOVA | F(8, | F(10, | F(12, | F(14, |
| 150625) = 63.05*** | 150623) = 65.28*** | 147531) = 162.38*** | 147529) = 167.43*** | |
| AIC | 5,273,073,545 | 5,269,643,121 | 5,109,159,082 | 5,107,120,796 |
| BIC | 5,273,073,555 | 5,269,643,131 | 5,109,159,092 | 5,107,120,806 |
P-values significant at ***p<0.001, **p<0.001, and *p<0.05. Models represents multilevel logistic regression. Model fit was better for Model 2B than for Model 2A and for Model 3B than for Model 3A, seen in lower values of AIC = Akaike Information Criterion, corrected and BIC = Bayesian Information Criterion. According to the World Bank classification, low-income countries have a per capita gross national income of less than $1,026, lower middle income countries of $1,026-$3,995, upper middle income countries of $3,996-$12,375, and high-income countries of more than $12,375 [23]. Gallup computed income quintiles for each country, or five similarly sized income categories, include the 20% poorest people in their country, the 20% richest people in their country, and three income categories in between.