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. 2021 Nov 22;4:1317. doi: 10.1038/s42003-021-02835-2

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — a PIWAS statistical ranking of kmer enrichments across the SARS-CoV-2 proteome using the Mann–Whitney false-discovery rate (FDR). Multiple antigens in addition to spike and nucleoprotein showed significant enrichment for one or more epitopes. b PIWAS kmer enrichments from COVID-19 repertoires versus pre-pandemic controls across statistically significant antigens. PIWAS values = number of standard deviations above the mean of 1500 pre-pandemic controls. PIWAS tiling (left): Dark purple = average COVID-19 patient signal, light purple = 95th quantile band for COVID-19 patient signal, dark gray = average pre-pandemic control patient signal, light gray = 95th quantile band for pre-pandemic patient signal. PIWAS distribution (right): One point per patient of maximum PIWAS value across each protein. IMUNE motifs largely mapped to the same prominent epitopes that were identified by PIWAS. Epitopes on spike and nucleoprotein discovered by IMUNE are shown below each antigen (orange bars). All antigens were found to be statistically different from controls as shown in a. c Longitudinal samples from individual subjects enabled identification of RBD-specific signals that emerged over time but were not conserved across COVID-19 patients.