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Summary of the study design and cohort details. This clinical study recruited 1,513 participants from four independent medical centers, which includes 503 HC, 593 2-DM, 230 DKD-E, and 187 DKD-A patients in one discovery and four testing cohorts. Sera were collected and subjected to training proteomics and large-scale metabolomics. HC: healthy control; 2-DM: type 2 diabetes mellitus; DKD-E: early-stage diabetic kidney disease; DKD-A: advanced-stage diabetic kidney disease.
