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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2021 Nov 25.
Published in final edited form as: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2021 Aug 10;22(10):593–615. doi: 10.1038/s41583-021-00496-y

Fig. 4 |. Biofabrication strategies to modulate multicellular neural maturation.

Fig. 4 |

a | Cellular identity is spatially patterned by morphogen gradients in vivo. Similar morphogen or growth factor gradients can be generated by microfluidics, and growth factor release can be stabilized using drug-releasing microparticles or nanoparticles. Such approaches can enable spatially patterned in vitro cultures in two dimensions and three dimensions. b | The developing brain comprises different cell types and structures, including blood vessels. Bioprinting and biomaterial-based scaffolds may enable the generation of more complex structures and human neurovascularization in three dimensions. c | Electrical activity during development can be emulated by electrical stimulation using engineered materials, such as carbon nanotubes, graphene and conductive polymers. Ultimately, such techniques may enable a multi-electrode array-like structure embedded in three-dimensional (3D) cultures. BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; SHH, sonic hedgehog.