Table 2.
Summary of the effects of various nutrients, food groups, dietary patterns and lifestyle on prevalent or incident depression
| Dietary components | Total/number of cases | mean follow-up t (yr) | Main Results1 [comparisons between quantiles (q) or the designated categories] |
| Cohort studies | |||
| Nutrients | |||
| Omega-3 fatty acids[6] | 7903/512 | 2.4 | q4 vs q1: OR (95%CI) 0.65 (0.47–0.90). P for trend = 0.376 |
| Trans fatty acids[37] | 12059/657 | 6.1 | q5 vs q1: 1.42 (1.09-1.84); P for trend = 0.003 |
| MUFA[37] | 12059/657 | 6.1 | q5 vs q1: 0.80 (0.62-1.03); P for trend = 0.05 |
| PUFA[37] | 12059/657 | 6.1 | q5 vs q1; 0.76 (0.59-0.99; P for trend = 0.03 |
| Magnesium[123] | 12939/737 | 6.3 | q5 vs q1: 1.11 (0.77-1.59) No association. |
| Nutritional adequacy[124] | 13983/953 | 8.5 | ≥ 4 nutritional deficiencies vs ≤ 1: 1.37 (1.01-1.85) |
| Total Fiber[40] | 548/198 | Cross-sectional | q4 vs q1: OR = 0.54 (95%CI: 0.11–2.63); Non significant association |
| Foods and food groups | |||
| Fast food[125] | 8964/493 | 6.2 | q5 vs q1: 1.36 (1.02-1.81); P for trend = 0.03 |
| Ultra-processed foods[126] | 14907/774 | 10.3 | q4 vs q1: 1.33 (1.07, 1.64); P for trend = 0.004 |
| Baked goods[125] | 8964/493 | 6.2 | q2-5 vs q1: 1.38 (1.06-1.80); |
| Olive oil[37] | 12059/657 | 6.1 | q5 vs q1: 0.80 (0.62-1.04); P for trend = 0.06 |
| Seafoods[127] | 6587/1367 | Cross-sectional | q3 vs q1 of fatty fish consumption: OR 0.72 (0.59–0.88). Higher intakes were non-significant |
| Coffee[128] | 14413/199 | 10 | ≥ 4 cups/d vs < 1 cup/d: 0.37 (0.15–0.95); P for trend = 0.220 |
| Yoghurt[36] | 14542/727 | 9.3 | Low fat: max vs min: 1.32 (1.06–1.65); P for trend = 0.001 |
| Whole fat: max vs min: 0.78 (0.63–0.98); P for trend = 0.02 | |||
| Dietary patterns | |||
| MD score[8] | 10094/480 | 4.4 | 3pts vs 0-2pts: 0.74 (0.57-0.98) |
| 4pts vs 0-2pts: 0.66 (0.50-0.86) | |||
| 5pts vs 0-2pts: 0.49 (0.36-0.67) | |||
| 6-9pts vs 0-2pts: 0.58 (0.44-0.77); P for trend <0.001 | |||
| MD score (updated)[103] | 15093/1051 | 8.5 | q5 vs q1: 0.84 (0.69-1.02); P for trend = 0.001 |
| Pro-vegetarian[103] | 15093/1051 | 8.5 | q5 vs q1: 0.74 (0.61-0.89); P for trend < 0.001 |
| AHEI 2010[103] | 15093/1051 | 8.5 | q5 vs q1: 0.60 (0.49-0.72); P for trend < 0.001 |
| DASH-Fung diet[102] | 14051/410 | 8 | < 2pts vs 3-9pts: 0.76 (0.61-0.94): |
| Pro-inflammatory pattern[129] | 15093/1051 | 8.5 | q5 vs q1: 1.47 (1.17, 1.85); P for trend = 0.010 |
| Lifestyle | |||
| Mediterranean lifestyle[130] | 11800/806 | 8.5 | High vs low : 0.50 (0.32-0.81) |
| Healthy lifestyle score[131] | 14908/774 | 10.4 | Max vs min: 0.68 (0.49-0.95); P for trend 0.010 |
| Alcohol[132] | 13619/459 | 8 | Moderate vs no consumption: 0.62 (0.43-0.89) in female subjects |
| CV risk equation[133] | 16739/927 | 6 | q5 vs q1: 3.45 (2.40-4.95) starting at 40 yr |
| Physical activity[7] | 10381/923 | 6 | q5 vs q1: OR (95% CI) 0.81 (0.65-1.00) P for trend < 0.01 |
| Leisure time physical activity[134] | 6343/311 | 10.5 | > 20 METs-h/wk vs < 10 METs-h/wk; 0.84 (0.72–0.99); P for trend 0.046 |
| Tobacco[135] | 8556/190 | 4 | Smokers vs non-smokers: 1.30 (0.97-1.73) |
| Childhood obesity (5 yr)[136] | 11825/651 | 6.1 | Obese vs low weight: 1.50 (1.06-2.12); P for trend = 0.012 |
| Youth obesity (20 yr)[136] | 11825/651 | 6.1 | Obese vs low weight: 2.22 (1.20-4.08); P for trend = 0.005 |
| Clinical trials | |||
| The PREDIMED study[119] | 3923/224 | 5.4 | MD + EVOO2 or nut supplements vs Low fat diet: multivariable adjusted 0.85 (0.64 to 1.13); Non significant associations |
| The MoodFOOD Study[117] | 512/54 | 1 | Multi-nutrient supplement vs placebo groups: OR = 1.06 (0.87-1.29); Non significant associations. |
1
Estimates are presented as HR (95%CI) for incident depression unless stated otherwise.
2
Extra virgin olive oil. MUFA: Monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA: Polyunsaturated fatty acids; MD: Mediterranean diet.