Table 3. Summary of In Vitro and In Vivo Models Used for Validating the Efficacy of CMC Mimics with/without Modification in Various Treatmentsa.
| cell membrane source/modification | template | encapsulation | in vitro models | in vivo models | mode of administration | treatment | ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| platelets | PLGA nanoparticles | vancomycin | MRSA252, THP-1, HUVECs | male CD-1 mice (25g), MRSA252 | intravenous | MRSA bacterial infection | (93) |
| PLGA nanoparticles | docetaxel | – | male Sprague–Dawley rats (300–350 g), angioplasty-induced arterial denudation | intravenous | restenosis | (93) | |
| PLGA nanoparticles | – | antiplatelets antibodies | male CD-1 mice (6 week old, 20–24 g) | intraperitoneal | immune thrombocytopenia purpura | (212) | |
| PAMAM-PVL ultrasmall unimolecular nanoparticles | endothelium-protective epigenetic inhibitor (JQ1), or Rapamycin | – | Male Sprague–Dawley rats (∼400 g), carotid artery balloon angioplasty | intravenous | restenosis | (122) | |
| PLGA nanoparticles | – | J774, HUVECs | ApoE knockout mice | intravenous | Atherosclerosis | (123) | |
| PLGA nanoparticles | doxorubicin, Indocyanine green | MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, CAMA-1, HeLa | female nude mice, MDA-MB-231 (footpad) | intratumoral | circulating tumor cells of breast cancer Lung metastasis of breast cancer | (87) | |
| female nude mice, MDA-MB-231 (back) | intravenous | ||||||
| female nude mice, MDA-MB-231-luc (orthotropic) | intravenous | ||||||
| PLGA nanoparticles | verteporfin | 4T1, NIH-3T3 | BALB/c mice (3–5 week old), 4T1 | intravenous | breast cancer | (121) | |
| platelets/RGD | melanin nanoparticles | doxorubicin | RAW264.7, HUVECs, MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-231/ADR | Female BALB/c nude mice (18–20 g), MDA-MB-231/ADR | intravenous | lung metastasis of breast cancer | (408) |
| platelets/TRAIL | acrylamide nanogels | doxorubicin | MDA-MB-231, RAW264.7 | Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats (200 ± 20 g), MDA-MB-231 | intravenous | circulating tumor cells of breast cancer Lung metastasis of breast cancer | (339) |
| platelets/TRAIL | silica microparticles-APTES | – | MDA-MB-231, PC3, THP-1 | C57BL/6 mice (6–8 week old), MDA-MB-231,COLO 205, B16-F10, MC38 | intravenous | circulating tumor cells of breast cancer | (213) |
| microrenathane microtubes coated human fibrinogen (thrombosis model) | |||||||
| platelets + WBCs | immunomagnetic beads | – | MCF-7, HCT116, HeLa | – | – | circulating tumor cells of breast cancer | (99) |
| platelets + RBC | gold nanowire | – | MRSA USA300, α-toxins | – | – | S. aureus bacterial infection | (196) |
| platelets + RBC | PLGA nanoparticles | – | MDA-MB-231, HFF-1 foreskin fibroblasts, THP-1 | ApoE knockout mice | intravenous | atherosclerosis | (97) |
| RBC | PLGA nanoparticles | vancomycin | MRSA USA300, THP-1, α-toxins | – | – | MRSA bacterial infection | (114) |
| PLGA nanoparticles | rapamycin | RAW264.7 | ApoE knockout mice (8 week old, 25–30 g) | intravenous | atherosclerosis | (211) | |
| olive oil nanodroplets | – | organophosphates (paraoxon, diisopropyl fluorophosphate, dichlorvos) | ICR mice (6 week old) | intravenous, intraperitoneal | organophosphate poisoning | (77) | |
| PLGA nanoparticles | – | HUVECs, α-toxins, streptolysin-O, melittin | female nu/nu nude mice (6 week-old), α-toxins | subcutaneous | pore forming toxins | (115) | |
| PLGA nanoparticles | mesenchymal stem cell, growth factors | THLE-2, HSC-T6, mouse lung cells, human primary M1 macrophages | C57BL/6 mice (18–25 g) | intravenous | acute liver failure | (86) | |
| Human serum albumin nanoparticles | Perfluorotributylamine, indocyanine green | HeLa, CT-26, RAW264.7 | male BALB/C mice (5–6 week), CT26 | intravenous | colon cancer | (269) | |
| Fe3O4 nanoclusters | – | MCF-7, RAW264.7 | female nude mice (4 week old), MCF-7 | intravenous | Breast cancer | (265) | |
| E. coli | – | primary macrophages | female BALB/C mice (6–8 week old), CT26 and 4T1 | intravenous | colon cancer, breast cancer | (59) | |
| PLNPs (Zn1.25Ga1.5Ge0.25O4:Cr3+,Yb3+,Er3+) coated with SiO2 | – | Balb/3T3, HeLa, MCF-7, 4T1, RAW264.7 | BALB/c mice, 4T1 | intravenous | breast cancer | (68) | |
| gelatin nanoparticles | vancomycin | RAW 264.7, S. aureus, E. coli, S. epidermidis, P. vulgaris, S. marcescens, P. aeruginosa | – | – | Gram positive bacterial infection | (64) | |
| gold nanorods | – | Capan-2 | male Balb/c nude mice (6–8 week old), Capan-2 | intravenous | pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas | (261) | |
| PLGA nanoparticles | – | HUVEC, mouse RBCs | Male CD-1 mice (8 week old) | intravenous | MRSA bacterial infection | (278) | |
| PLGA nanoparticles | – | anti-RBC polyclonal IgG | CD-1 mice, anti-RBCs | intravenous | autoimmune anemia | (409) | |
| PLGA nanoparticles | Fe3O4 nanoparticles | influenza virus, Mardin Darby canine kidney cells | – | – | influenza virus | (74) | |
| carbon nanotube-based field effect transistor | – | MRSA USA300, Pore forming toxins (melittin, streptolysin O, Hlα) | – | – | MRSA bacterial infection | (75) | |
| RBC/cRGD peptide | docetaxel nanocrystal | – | HUVECs, U87 | male nude mice (20–22 g), U87, antisubcutaneous tumor- and antiorthotropic glioma | intravenous | glioblastoma | (333) |
| BBTB model (HUVEC/U87 coculture) | |||||||
| RBC/T7, NGR peptide | solid lipid nanoparticles | – | HUVECs, bEnd.3, C6 | Tg (fli1:egfp) strain of zebrafish, ICR mice (22–24 g), C6 | intracranial | glioblastoma | (335) |
| BBB model(upper: bEnd.3) | |||||||
| BBTB model (upper: HUVECs, lower: C6) | |||||||
| RBC/anti-EGFR-iRGD | – | paclitaxel | MKN45 | male BALB/c nude mice weighing 18–20 g (5–6 week old), MKN45 | intravenous | gastric cancer | (332) |
| RBC/iRGD | polycaprolactone nanoparticles | paclitaxel | 4T1, RAW264.7 | Balb/c mice (18–20 g), orthotopic 4T1 | Intravenous | Lung metastasis of breast cancer | (309) |
| RBC/folate receptor | UCNPs (β-NaYF4:Er3+,Yb3+) | – | MCF-7 | BALB/c nude mice, MCF-7 | intravenous | breast cancer | (277) |
| RBC/ DCDX peptide | PLGA nanoparticles | doxorubicin | primary brain capillary endothelial cells | nude mice, U87 | intravenous | glioblastoma | (234) |
| BBB model (Wistar rat primary brain capillary endothelial cells) | |||||||
| RBC/stroke homing peptide (SHp) | boronic acid conjugated dextran nanoparticles | NR2B9C | PC-12, BBB model (rat brain capillary endothelial cell line) | male Sprague–Dawley (SD) rats (5–6 week, 200 ± 20 g) | intravenous | ischemic stroke | (410) |
| RBC+ MCF-7 | Melanin nanoparticles | - | MCF-7, 4T1, MCF-10A, RAW264.7 | female athymic Balb/c nude mice (20–22 g), MCF-7 | intravenous | breast cancer | (198) |
| NK-92 | poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-block-PLGA nanoparticles | 4,4′,4″,4‴-(porphine-5,10,15,20-tetrayl) tetrakis (benzoic acid) (TCPP) | 4T1, MCF-7, MCF10A | female BALB/c mice (6 week old, 18–22 g) | intravenous | breast cancer | (150) |
| liposomes | doxorubicin | MCF-7, NHost | female nu/nu nude mice (6 week old), MCF-7 | intravenous | breast cancer | (102) | |
| neutrophils | PLGA nanoparticles | carfilzomib | HUVECs, 4T1, 4T1 (GFP+ or luc+) | female Balb/c nude mice (20 ± 2 g), GFP+4T1, luc+4T1 | intravenous | lung metastasis of breast cancer | (55) |
| PLGA nanoparticles | – | HUVECs, primary human chondrocytes | human TNF-α male transgenic mice (5 week old) DBA/1J mice in collagen-induced arthritis (6 week old, 18–22 g) | intra-articular | inflammatory arthritis | (66) | |
| natural macrophage cells | gold nanoshells | – | 4T1 | male Balb/c nude mice, 4T1 | intravenous | breast cancer | (139) |
| silica nanocapsules | doxorubicin | RAW 264.7, NIH/3T3, 4T1 | male BALB/c nude mice, 4T1 | intravenous | breast cancer | (69) | |
| RAW 264.7 | liposomes | emtansine | RAW 264.7, 4T1, 4T1-luc | female BALB/c nude mice (18–22 g), 4T1-luc | intravenous | lung metastasis of breast cancer | (129) |
| Fe3O4 nanoparticles | – | RAW 264.7, MCF-7 | Female BALB/c nude mice (6–8 week old), MCF-7 | intravenous | breast cancer | (131) | |
| UCNPs (β-NaYF4:Er3+,Yb3+ rare earth) | – | RAW 264.7, MCF-7 | female BALB/c nude mice (6–8 week old), MCF-7 male ICR mice (6–8 week old) | intravenous | breast cancer | (132) | |
| bismuth selenide nanoparticles | quercetin | RAW 264.7, 4T1, HUVECs | BALB/c mice, 4T1 | intravenous | lung metastasis of breast cancer | (88) | |
| transwell cell invasion (upper: 4T1) | |||||||
| wound healing (4T1) | |||||||
| dual-chamber transwell (5 μm, 0.4-μm sized microporous membranes) | |||||||
| J774 | PLGA nanoparticles | – | J774, HEK-blue mTLR4, HUVECs | male BALB/c mice (6 week old), LPS (endotoxemia model) | intravenous | sepsis | (130) |
| U937 | PLGA nanoparticles | – | MCF-7 | – | – | breast cancer | (298) |
| human cytotoxic T-lymphocyte | PLGA nanoparticles | paclitaxel | MKN-45, differentiated THP-1 | male Balb/c nude athymic mice (4–6 week old), MKN-45 | intravenous | gastric cancer | (98) |
| CD4+ T cells | PLGA nanoparticles | – | HIV stains (X4 and R5) | – | – | HIV | (159) |
| dendritic Cells | PLGA nanoparticles | IL-2 | primary CD8+ T, T cells, NIH-3T3, 293T, ID8 | C57BL/6 mice (6–8 week old), ID8 | subcutaneous | ovarian cancer | (106) |
| bone marrow-derived dendritic cells +4T1 | PCN-224 MOFs | – | 4T1, CT26, 3T3 | Balb/c mice, 4T1 | intravenous | breast cancer | (168) |
| Human adiposed- derived stem cells | PLGA nanoparticles | – | J774, THP-1 | female C57BL/6 mice (10 week old, 22–24 g) | intravenous | hindlimb ischemia | (227) |
| transwell: HUVECs | |||||||
| adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells | Fe3O4 nanoparticles | – | TRAMP-C1, RAW246.7 | – | – | prostate cancer | (95) |
| cardiac stem cell | PLGA microparticles | cardiac stem cells growth factors | cardiomyocytes | male SCID Beige mice | intramyocardial | myocardial infarction | (187) |
| bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cell membrane | gelatin nanogels | doxorubicin | HeLa, L02 | female BALB/c nude mice (∼4 week old), HeLa | intravenous | cervical cancer | (186) |
| UCPNs (β-NaYF4:Er3+,Yb3+ rare earth) | – | HeLa, L02 | female BALB/c nude mice (∼4 week old), HeLa | intravenous | cervical cancer | (185) | |
| neural stem cell/CXCR4 | PLGA nanoparticles | – | – | male C57BL/6 mice (≈20 g) | intravenous | ischemic stroke | (188) |
| B16-OVA/mannose | PLGA nanoparticles | imiquimod, R837 (toll-like receptor 7 (TLR-7) agonist | bone marrow-derived dendritic cells | female BALB/c mice (6–8 week old), B16-OVA | Intradermal | melanoma | (343) |
| U87/CXCR4 | PLGA nanoparticles | – | U87, U87-CXCR4, MDA-MB-231, BT-474, HMFs | female athymic Balb/c (nu/nu) mice, Female immunocompetent Balb/c mice(6–8 week old) | intravenous | lung metastasis of breast cancer | (224) |
| transwell model: HMFs | |||||||
| LNCaP-AI | CaCO3 capped mesoporous silica nanoparticles | doxorubicin | LNCaP-AI, QSG-7701, MCF-7 | BALB/c nude mice (6 week old), LNCaP-AI | intravenous | prostate cancer | (225) |
| HeLa | Fe3O4 nanoparticles | doxorubicin | HeLa, UM-SCC-7, COS7, RAW 264.7 | female BALB/c nude mice (4–5 week old), UM-SCC-7 | intravenous | cervical cancer | (173) |
| PLGA nanoparticles | paclitaxel, small interfering RNA (siRNA-E7) | HeLa, Ect1, LO2, RAW264.7 | female BALB/c nude mice (4–5 week old, 18–22 g), HeLa | intravenous | cervical cancer | (235) | |
| GdTPP and ZnTPP nanocomposites | – | HeLa | nude mice, HeLa | intravenous | cervical cancer | (219) | |
| ZIF-8 MOFs | catalase, Al(III) phthalocyanine chloride tetrasulfonic acid | 4T1, HeLa, SCC-7, COS7, RAW264.7 | BALB/c-nu mice (4–5 week old), HeLa | intravenous | cervical cancer | (342) | |
| 143B | silica nanoparticles | indocyanine green | 143B | female Balb/c nude mice (6–8 week old), 143B | intravenous | bone cancer | (174) |
| MCF-7 | PLGA nanoparticles | indocyanine green | MCF-7, 293T, MCF-10A, HepG2, A549, MDA-MB-231 | female BALB/c mice (4–6 week old), MCF-7 | intravenous | breast cancer | (65) |
| mesoporous silica nanoparticles supported with PEGylated liposomes | – | SK-hep-1, Caco-2, HeLa, Bxpc-3, Huh-7, MCF-7 | BALB/c nude mice (20g), MCF-7 | intravenous | breast cancer | (175) | |
| 3D- spheroids of MCF-7 | |||||||
| MDA-MB-435, B16-F10 | PLGA nanoparticles | – | bone marrow-derived DCs, MDA-MB-435, B16-F10, HFFs | female C56BL/6 mice (6 week old), MDA-MB-435 Female C56BL/6 mice (6 week old), B16-F10 | intradermal | melanoma | (92) |
| 4T1 | poly(caprolactone) nanoparticles | paclitaxel | RAW264.7, WML2, 4T1, MDA-MB-435, A549, BEL-7402 | female BALB/c nude mice, 4T1, 4T1-luc, female BALB/c mice (4–5 week old, 18–22 g), 4T1 | intravenous | lung metastasis of breast cancer | (220) |
| gold nanocages | doxorubicin | 4T1 | BALB/c nude mice (18–22 g) orthotopic, 4T1 | intravenous | lung metastasis of breast cancer | (221) | |
| PLNPs | – | 4T1 | female BALB/c nude mice (4 week old, 18–22 g), 4T1 | intravenous | lung metastasis of breast cancer | (72) | |
| carbon sphere dotted with cerium oxide nanoparticles | – | COS7, 293T, 4T1 | female BALB/c mice (6 week old), 4T1 | intravenous | breast cancer | (297) | |
| SGC7901 | silica nanoparticles | chlorins e6 | SGC7901 | female BALB/c nude mice (6–8 week old), SGC7901 | intravenous | gastric cancer | (174) |
| U-251 MG | Fe3O4 nanoparticles | – | U-251 MG, SH-SY5Y, C8-D1A, bEnd.3 | – | – | glioblastoma | (273) |
| U-251 MG 3D spheroids | |||||||
| BBB model (upper chamber: bEnd.3; lower chamber: U-251 MG) | |||||||
| HNSCC | gelatin nanoparticles | cisplatin | patient-derived tumor cell | BALB/c nude mice (male, 6–8 week old), patient derived tumor cells | intravenous | head and neck squamous cell carcinoma | (105) |
| K562 | Fe3O4 nanoparticles | doxorubicin, indocyanine green | MG-63, A549, SW380, A375, HepG2, MCF-7, MGC-803, L02, RAW 264.7 | BALB/c nude mice, MG-63 | intravenous | osteosarcoma | (103) |
| MDA-MB-435, DU145, CAL27, HCT116 | UCNPs (β-NaYF4:Er3+,Yb3+) | – | RAW264.7, MDA-MB-435, DU145, CAL27, HCT116 | female BALB/c nude mice (6–8 week old), MDA-MB-435 | intravenous | breast cancer | (223) |
| B16.OVA, B16.F10, LL/2, CMT64.OVA, MB49, A549, SKOV-3 | adenovirus serotype 5 particles | – | A549, SKOV-3 | female C57BL/6 mice (4–6 week old) B16.OVA, B16.F10, LL/2, | intratumoral | melanoma lung cancer | (214) |
| H22 | gold nanocages | doxorubicin | RAW 264.7, H22 | Sprague–Dawley (SD) male rats (6–8 week old) male BALB/c mice (6 week old, 20–22 g), H22 | intratumoral; intravenous | liver cancer | (226) |
| AF | semiconducting polymer (poly(cyclopentadithiophenealt-benzothiadiazole) nanoparticles | – | AF, fibroblasts, chondrocytes, 4T1, HeLa, SKOV3 | female NCr nude mice (4–6 week old), 4T1 | intravenous | breast cancer-associated fibroblasts | (104) |
| MIN6 | polycaprolactone nanofibers | – | MIN6 | – | – | β-cell proliferation and function | (96) |
| E. coli DH5α + B16-F10 | polydopamine nanoparticles | – | B16-F10, NHDF, MCF-7, A549 | female C57BL/6 mice (6–8 week old), B16-F10 | intravenous | melanoma | (200) |
| E. coli K12/ Rhizobium etli tyrosinase | – | melanin | 4T1 | female athymic Fox-N-1 nude mice (6 week old), 4T1; female C57BL/6 mice (6 week old) | intravenous, intratumoral | breast cancer | (194) |
| E. coli | Gold nanoparticles | – | – | Male CD-1 mice (6 week old), E. coli | subcutaneous | E. coli bacterial infection | (94) |
| S. aureus | PLGA nanoparticles | Vancomycin or Rifampicin | Ana-1, NIH-3T3 | Balb/c mice ((5–6 week old), S. aureus | intravenous | S. aureus bacterial infection | (192) |
| CRKP | BSA nanoparticles | – | RAW 264.7, DC2.4 | female C57BL/6 mice (6–8 week old) | subcutaneous | CRKP bacterial infection | (193) |
| C6/36 | gelatin nanoparticles | – | Vero, HeLa, HEK 293T | type I interferon (IFN-α/β) receptor deficient (A129) mice | intravenous | Zika viral infection | (228) |
| 293T/ACE2 + THP-1 | – | – | Vero-E6, Caco-2 | ICR mice (20 to 25 g, 4- 6 week old) | intratracheal | SARS-CoV-2 infection | (397) |
| NL-20, THP-1 | PLGA nanoparticles | – | Vero E6 | C57BL/6NHsd mice | intratracheal | SARS-CoV-2 infection | (400) |
| mitochondria (mouse liver) | PLGA nanoparticles, carbon nanotube-based field-effect transistors (FET) | – | ABT-263, HL-60 | female C57BL/6 mice (6 week old) | oral gavage | ABT-263-induced thrombocytopenia | (91) |
Abbreviations/cell lines: APTES, 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane; PAMAM-PVL, poly(amidoamine)-polyvalerolactone; PBMC, peripheral blood mononuclear cells; SHp, stroke homing peptide; BSA, bovine serum albumin; UCNPs, upconversion nanoparticles; PLNPs, persistent luminescent nanoparticles; MOFs, metal–organic frameworks; ZIF-8, zeolitic imidazolate framework; PCN, porous coordination network; MSCs, mesenchymal stem cells; HMFs, human mammary fibroblasts; HFFs, human foreskin fibroblasts; HNSCC, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma; AF, activated fibroblast; DCs, dendritic cells; CXCR4, C–X–C chemokine receptor type 4; MRSA252, methicillin-resistant S. aureus; THP-1, human acute monocytic leukemia cell line; HUVECs, human umbilical vein endothelial cell line; RAW 264.7, murine macrophage cell line; J774, murine macrophage cell line; MCF-7, human breast cancer cell line; 4T1, human breast cancer cell line; 4T1-Luc, 4T1 cells expressing luciferase; HeLa, human cervical cancer cell line; MDA-MB-231, breast cancer cell line; MDA-MB-231/ADR, DOX-resistant breast cancer cell line; 3T3, murine normal fibroblast cell line; CT26, murine colon cancer cell line; NIH-3T3, fibroblast cell line; ID8, murine ovarian surface epithelial cell line; MKN-45, human gastric cancer cell line; CAMA-1, human breast cancer cell line; CAL 27, human squamous carcinoma cell line; RD, human rhabdomyoma cell line; MKN45, gastric cell line; Capan-2, human pancreatic cancer cell line; C6, glioma cell line; 143B, human osteosarcoma cell line; SCC-7, murine squamous cell carcinoma cell line; Ect1, endocervical cell line; L02, normal hepatic cell line; LNCaP-AI, prostate cancer cell line; QSG-7701, human normal liver cell line; UM-SCC-7, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cell line; HCT116, human colorectal cancer cell line; TRAMP-C1, mouse prostate cancer cell line; COS7, african green monkey kidney cell line; 293T, human embryonic kidney cell line; WML2, murine lung fibroblast cell line; BEL-7402, human hepatoma cell line; SK-hep-1, human hepatic adenocarcinoma cell line; Caco-2, human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line; Bxpc-3, human pancreatic cancer cell line; Huh-7, human liver cell line; MCF-10A, nontumorigenic epithelial cell line; U-251 MG, glioblastoma multiforme cell line; SH-SY5Y, neuroblastoma cell line; C8-D1A, astrocytes type 1 clone; bEnd.3, mouse brain endothelial cell line; MDA-MB-435, human breast carcinoma cell line; DU145, human prostate cancer cell line; HCT116, human colorectal cancer cell line; CAL27, human squamous cancer cell line; A375, human melanoma cell line; HepG2, human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line; K562, human myelogenous leukemia cell line; MGC-803, human gastric carcinoma cell line; MG-63, human osteosarcoma cell line; L02, human hepatic cell line; SW380, human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells; B16-F10, murine melanoma cell line; B16.OVA, B16F10 cells expressed ovalbumin; LL/2, murine lewis lung carcinoma cell line; CMT64.OVA, lung carcinoma cell line expressed ovalbumin; MB49, murine bladder carcinoma cell line; A549, human nonsmall cell lung cancer cell line; SKOV-3, ovarian cancer cell line; CAL27, human squamous cancer cell line; H22, murine hepatocarcinoma cell line; MIN6, pancreatic β-cell line; C6/36, A. albopictus (mosquito medium host cell line; E. coli, Escherichia coli; E. coliK12, Escherichia coli derived from W3110; CRKP, carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumonia; S. aureus, Staphylococcus aureus; P. aeruginosa, Pseudomonas aeruginosa; S. marcescens, Serratia marcescens; P. vulgaris, Proteus vulgaris; S. epidermidis, Staphylococcus epidermidis; Ana-1, murine macrophage cell line; DC2.4, murine dendritic cell line; NL-20, human lung epithelial cells; HL-60, human leukemia cell line; ABT-263, B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) inhibitor.