Figure 3.

Gut microbiota and some relevant molecular pathways linking gut dysbiosis to cardiovascular diseases through the bloodstream and via the autonomic nervous system. The main mechanisms of the modulators include the neuroendocrine, afferent, and efferent pathways of the autonomic nervous system (vagus and sympathetic components), reactive oxygen species (ROS, represented by red circles), inflammatory markers (white and blue circles), and dietary metabolic products (short-chain fatty acids: SCFAs; lipopolysaccharide: LPS, green circles), which are delivered into the circulatory system and reach the brain, connecting integrative areas related to ND. Distinct areas (kidney, gut, heart, and brain) are represented to emphasize the protective effects of kefir based on our recent publications [14,63,64,65]. All images were modified and reconstructed from our previous publications. This diagram was also created by one of the coauthors of this review, a 76-year-old researcher suffering from PD for 12 years.