Table 1.

Characteristics and epigenetic effects of the main obesogenic EDCs.

Endocrine Disruptor	Description	Obesogenic Actions	Epigenetic Effects	Refs.
Bisphenol A (BPA)	Synthetic organic compound used in polycarbonate and resins. Commonly detected in water bottles, food containers, and metal-based cans.	Stimulation of adipogenesis Induction of insulin resistance Alteration of pancreatic beta-cell function Hepatotoxicity Induction of adulthood hepatic steatosis Reduction in mitochondrial function	Reduction in global DNA methylation Changes in histone marks (H3Ac, H4Ac, H3K4me2, H3K36me3)	[60] [61] [62]
Diethylstilbestrol (DES)	Synthetic estrogen used to prevent adverse pregnancy outcomes.	Stimulation of markers of adiposity (leptin and proinflammatory cytokines, [IL-6]) Alteration in glucose metabolism and pancreatic beta-cell hyperplasia	Increased expression of long non-coding RNA HOTAIR.	[63] [64] [65] [66]
Phthalates	Diesters of phthalic acid, widely used in the production of plastic products (children’s toys, food packaging, medical devices, and furnishings).	Increased adipogenesis and insulin resistance Strong correlation between urinary levels of phthalates’ metabolites and obesity	Increased DNA methylation at level of genes related to metabolism Increased expression of miR-34a-5p and of long non-coding RNA H19 and its downstream pathway	[67] [68] [69] [67] [70]
Organochlorine (OCPs) and Organophosphate (OPPs) Pesticides	OCPs are chlorinated hydrocarbons used from the 1940s to the 1960s and are still detected in tap water. OPPs represent up to 50% of all the insecticide use worldwide.	Stimulation of adipogenesis OPPs accumulate in adipose tissue and influence PPARγ gene expression and production of inflammatory cytokines	Decreased global DNA methylation in both adipose-derived stromal cells (ADSCs) and 3T3-L1 preadipocytes Increased demethylation of lysine 27 on histone H3 (H3K27me3)	[71] [72] [73] [60] [74] [75]
Inhaled pollutants	Toxic environmental particles originate from a variety of sources (industrial pollution, automobile traffic, natural disasters).	Stimulation of the classic systemic inflammatory response associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome	Altered DNA methylation status of PPARγ and PPARγ target genes	[76] [77] [78] [79]
Flame retardants	Group of compounds that prevent or slow the further development of ignition.	Stimulation of adipocytes differentiation Strong association between polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) exposure and body mass index	Reduction in global DNA methylation	[80]