Table 4.
Occurrence of cyanotoxins in (sea)food from the developing countries in Latin America.
| Country | Location/ Year |
Detected Toxins and Concentration Ranges (μg/kg, DW or WW) |
Matrix | N | P | Method of Detection | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | Los Padres Lake/2007 | MCs (1.0–8.0, WW) |
Odontesthes bonariensis (muscles) | 20 | NM | LC-MS/MS | [169] |
| San Roque reservoir/2004 | MC-RR (4.8–340, WW) |
Odontesthes bonariensis (muscles) | 30 | NM | LC-UV | [168] | |
| San Roque Reservoir/2011 | NODs (80–90, WW) |
Palaemonetes argentines (whole shrimp) | 80 | NM | LC-MS/MS | [66] | |
| Brazil | Rio de Janeiro/2003 | MCs (0.9–12, WW) |
Oreochromis niloticus; Tilapia rendalli (muscles) | 27 | 27 | ELISA | [164] |
| Jacarepaguá lagoon/2012 | MCs (up to 4, WW) |
Oreochromis niloticus (muscles) | 17 | 10 | ELISA | [171] | |
| Alagados Reservoir/2007–2008 | GTXs (22.1–30.6, WW) |
Geophagus brasiliensis (muscles) | 64 | 64 | LC-FLD | [95] | |
| Paranoa Lake/2006–2007 | MC-LR (up to 3380, WW) |
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (muscles) | 78 | NM | LC-PDA | [163] | |
| Sepetiba Bay, Rio de Janeiro/1999 | MCs (up to 103.3, WW) |
Fish muscles; shrimp; crab | 33 | 16 | ELISA | [166] | |
| Rio de Janeiro/1996–1999 | MCs (1.6–337.3, WW) |
Tilapia rendalli (muscles) | 144 | 108 | ELISA | [54] | |
| Garça city/2005 | STXs (up to 22, WW) |
Oreochromis niloticus (muscles) | 24 | NM | LC-FLD | [93] | |
| Iraí Reservoir, Paraná State/2015 | MCs (up to 7, WW) |
Geophagus brasiliensis (muscles) | 50 | NM | LC-MS/MS | [162] | |
| Guatemala | Lake Amatitlán cost/NM |
MC-RR (up to 1.03 and 1.16, DW) |
Solanum lycopersicum (Tomato); Capsicum annuum (peppers) | 12 | 12 | LC/MS/MS | [24] |
| Mexico | Lago Catemaco, Veracruz/NM | CYN (up to 3.35, WW); STXs (up to 1.04, WW) |
Pomacea patula catemacensi (snails) | NM | NM | ELISA | [94] |
| Lake Catemaco, Veracruz/2009 | CYN (0.09–1.26, WW); STXs (0.03–0.71, WW) |
Rhamidia sp.; Oreochromis aureus; Vieja sp.; V. fenestrate; Heterandria Jonesii; Bramocharax cabelleroi; Cichlasoma urophtalmus; C. helleri; Dorosoma mexicana (Fish tissue) |
14 | 14 | ELISA | [81] | |
| Michoacan/2008–2009 | MCs (4.99–157, WW) |
Cyprinus carpio sp.; Goodea sp. (Fish tissue) | NM | NM | ELISA | [167] | |
| Lake Zumpango, Mexico City/2016–2017 | MCs (5–24, DW) |
Chirostoma jordan (muscles) |
30 | 30 | ELISA | [55] |
DW, dry weight; WW, wet or fresh weight; N, number of samples; P, positive samples; LOD, limit of detection; NM, not mentioned; MCs, microcystins; MC-RR, microcystin-RR; MC-LR, microcystin-LR; NODs, nodularins; CYN, cylindrospermopsin; STXs; saxitoxins; GTXs, guanitoxin; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; LC-UV, liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detector; LC-PDA, LC-FLD, liquid chromatography with fluorescence detectors; liquid chromatography with photo-diode array detector; LC-MS/MS, liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry.