Table 2.
Effect of different nutrients on PPARs modulation.
| Nutrients | PPARs Regulation | References |
|---|---|---|
| Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) | ||
| n-3 fatty acids | Activate both PPARα and PPARγ and lead to prevention of inflammation in adipocytes | [109,115] |
| n-6 fatty acid | Inhibitors of PPAR receptor signalling and regulate metabolic network | [109] |
| Oleoylethanolamide | Activate PPARα and induce lipolysis | [114] |
| Palmitoylethanolamide | Activate PPARα and provide anti-inflammatory activity | [114] |
| Conjugated Linoleic acid (CLA) Isomers | ||
| 9Z, 11E-CLA | Enhance PPAR-γ activation and exerts strong anti-cancer effects | [119,154] |
| 10E, 12Z-CLA | Inhibits the PPAR-γ activation causing inflammation, IR and adipocyte delipidation | [155] |
| 9Z, 11Z-CLA and 9Z, 11E-CLA | Enhanced activation of PPARβ/δ in preadipocytes | [122] |
| Dietary Amino acids | ||
| Glutamine | Increase the expression of PPARγ and prevent metabolic stress | [125] |
| Arginine | Decrease the jejunal TNFa and increase the expression of PPARγ and beneficial against gut injury | [81] |
| Vitamins | ||
| Vitamin-A [Beta Carotene (BC)] | BC supplementation can reduce the activity of PPAR-γ | [138] |
| Vitamin- E (Tocopherols) | α-tocopherol modulate PPAR-γ expression better than γ-tocopherol | [143,144] |
| 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin-D3 | Decrease the expression of PPAR-γ2 and regulate lipid metabolism | [152] |
| Phytochemicals | ||
| Isoflavone | Act as a ligand for PPAR to regulate lipid metabolism | [156] |
| Quercetin | Inhibits the activity of all isoform of PPARs except that of PPAR-γ and prevent accumulation of fat in the liver | [119] |
| Lectins | Up-regulate the PPAR-γ2 and provide an adipogenic effect on mesenchymal cells | [155] |
| Alliin | Activates the PPAR-γ and provides a cardioprotective effect | [157] |
| Allicin | Inhibit the PPAR-γ2 and therefore inhibits the differentiation and inflammation of the human preadipocytes | [158] |
| Curcumin | Activates the PPAR-γ and confer antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity | [159] |
| Resveratrol | Down-regulate PPAR-γ1−3 mRNA expression in humans and provide anti-diabetic and anti-obesity effects | [160] |
| Triterpenes | Suppress PPAR-γ expression and prevent cancer development | [161] |
| Polysaccharides | Suppress PPAR-γ expression and exert anti-cancerous activity | [161] |