Table 2.
Studies on temperamental and personality factors.
| Study | Study Design | Sample | Trial Duration | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Joyce et al., 2003 [100] | Cross-sectional study; clinical outpatient population | 180 depressed outpatients | - | Childhood abuse and/or neglect + borderline temperament + childhood and adolescent depression, hypomania, conduct disorder and alcohol and drug dependence → BPD |
| Crick et al., 2005 [96] | Longitudinal study; community population | 400 (54% female) fourth through sixth graders | 1 year | BPD features moderately stable over the course of the study, with girls reporting higher levels of BPD features than boys |
| Carlson et al., 2009 [56] | Longitudinal study; community population | A sample of young mothers and their first -born children (N = 162; 82 males, 80 females) | 28 years | Endogenous and environmental history in early childhood → disturbance of child functioning in middle childhood/early adolescence → BPD symptoms in adulthood |
| Tragesser et al., 2009 [101] | Cross-sectional study; community population | 141 undergraduates | - | Both affective instability and impulsivity uniquely associated with BPD features |
| Gratz et al., 2009 [102] | Cross-sectional study; community population | 263 children aged 9 to 13 | - | Effect of affective dysfunction and disinhibition in childhood BPD symptoms mediated by self- and emotion-regulation deficits |
| Tragesser et al., 2010 [103] | Longitudinal study; community population | 353 young adults (aged 18–20) | 2 years | Negative affect predictive of most BPD symptoms but not future impulsive behavior |
| Underwood et al., 2011 [104] | Longitudinal study; community population | 255 children aged 9 to 13 (131 girls and 124 boys) | 5 years | High levels of social and physical aggression in middle childhood → greatest risk for adolescent psychopathology (BPD and NPD) |
| Belsky et al., 2012 [83] | Longitudinal cohort study; community population | 1,116 pairs of same-sex twins followed from birth through age 12 years | 12 years | BPD-related characteristics more common in children who had exhibited poor cognitive function, impulsivity and more behavioral and emotional problems at age 5 years |
| Bornalova et al., 2013 [94] | Longitudinal study; community population (twins) | A large sample of twins (over 1300 pairs) aged 11–24 | 13 years | Common genetic influences that also overlap with internalizing and externalizing disorders → association between childhood abuse and BPD traits |
| Kaess et al., 2013 [105] | Cross-sectional study; community and clinical population | 33 adolescents with BPD, 35 clinical controls (CCs) and 31 healthy controls (HCs), all females | - | ↑ novelty seeking + ↑ harm avoidance + ↓ reward dependence in the adolescents with BPD |
| Stepp, Keenan et al., 2014 [37] | Longitudinal cohort study; community population | 2450 girls aged 5–8 at first evaluation, 14–19 at second evaluation, drawn from the Pittsburgh Girls Study | 5 years | Childhood temperament dimensions of emotionality, activity, low sociability and shyness predict adolescent BPD symptom development |
| Nelson et al., 2014 [97] | Longitudinal cohort study; community population | 168 preschool children (84 boys, 84 girls) living in intact, two-parent biological households | 10 years | Preschool relational aggression + aversive parenting → ↑ aggression + BPD features in adolescent females; preschool authoritative parenting → ↓ aggression and BPD features in boys, vs. authoritarian parenting → ↑ aggression |
| Vaillancourt et al., 2014 [98] | Longitudinal cohort study; community population | 484 youths (aged 10 to 14) | 4 years | Childhood relational aggression + depression for boys; physical and relational aggression + depression + ADHD for girls → BPD features at age 14 |
| Martín-Blanco et al., 2014 [106] | Cross-sectional study; clinical population | 130 BPD subjects | - | Temperamental traits + childhood emotional abuse → development + severity of BPD |
| Jovev et al., 2014 [107] | Cross-sectional study; community population | 153 healthy adolescents (Mage = 12.6 years) | - | Boys: ↑/↓ affiliation + hippocampal asymmetry → ↑ BPD symptoms; girls: ↓ effortful control + hippocampal asymmetry → ↑ BPD symptoms |
| Hallquist et al., 2015 [108] | Longitudinal study; community population | A sample of girls (aged 5 to 17) taken from the Pittsburgh Girls Study (n = 2450) | 12 years | Harsh punishment + poor self-control + negative emotionality → BPD symptom severity at age 14; ↓ self-control ages 12–14 → ↑BPD symptoms from 14 to 17 |
| Sharp et al., 2015 [109] | Longitudinal study; community population | 730 adolescents | 1 year | Experiential avoidance → BPD features + severity of BPD symptoms at 1-year follow-up |
| Cramer et al., 2016 [110] | Longitudinal study; community population | 100 youths (aged 11 to 23) | 12 years | Childhood personality traits (impulsivity + nonconformity/aggression) → adult BPD features |
| Conway et al., 2017 [99] | Longitudinal study; community population | 2450 high-risk adolescent girls aged 14 to 20 | 6 years | BPD pathology fluctuates in response to situational influences |
BPD, borderline personality disorder; ND, narcissistic personality disorder; HC, healthy controls; CC, clinical controls.