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. 2021 Nov 16;10(11):1491. doi: 10.3390/pathogens10111491

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© 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Integration of antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in broiler chickens, 2015 to 2019. Total antimicrobials used—Susceptible (i.e., isolates that exhibited reduced or intermediate susceptibility to all antimicrobials tested) (A). Total antimicrobials used—multiclass resistance (i.e., isolates that exhibited resistance to antimicrobials from at least three different antimicrobial classes) (B). Trimethoprim and sulfonamides used—Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole resistance (C). Tetracycline used—Tetracycline resistance (D). + Significant (p ≤ 0.05) difference in AMR compared to the referent year (2015, labelled as Ref in (A)). OR–Odds Ratio, 95%CI–95% confidence intervals. Data points for AMU are flock-level mean nDDDvetCA/kg animal biomass and for AMR, these are annual mean % resistance with 95% confidence intervals and adjusted for clustering at the flock-level to account for multiple samples per flock. AMU-AMR associations were evaluated using mixed effects logistic regression models.

Integration of antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in broiler chickens, 2015 to 2019. Total antimicrobials used—Susceptible (i.e., isolates that exhibited reduced or intermediate susceptibility to all antimicrobials tested) (A). Total antimicrobials used—multiclass resistance (i.e., isolates that exhibited resistance to antimicrobials from at least three different antimicrobial classes) (B). Trimethoprim and sulfonamides used—Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole resistance (C). Tetracycline used—Tetracycline resistance (D). + Significant (p ≤ 0.05) difference in AMR compared to the referent year (2015, labelled as Ref in (A)). OR–Odds Ratio, 95%CI–95% confidence intervals. Data points for AMU are flock-level mean nDDDvetCA/kg animal biomass and for AMR, these are annual mean % resistance with 95% confidence intervals and adjusted for clustering at the flock-level to account for multiple samples per flock. AMU-AMR associations were evaluated using mixed effects logistic regression models.