Table 2.

Micronutrient deficiency in autoimmune gastritis: prevalence, development mechanisms, clinical manifestations (adapted from Cavalcoli et al., 2017).

Micronutrient	Development Frequency	Development Mechanisms	Manifestations
Vitamin B12	37–69%	Decreased production of intrinsic Castle’s factor by parietal cells of the gastric body and decreased absorption of vitamin B12 in the ileum	Hematological, gastroenterological, neuropsychiatric disorders
Iron	52%	The presence of erosive lesions of the mucous membrane and possible latent blood loss, concomitant infection with H. pylori and bacteria competition for dietary iron, hypochlorhydria, and increased hepcidin synthesis against a background of a concomitant inflammatory process	Microcytic anemia
Vitamin C	Unknown	Breakdown of ascorbic acid in the stomach due to increased pH (hypo-, achlorhydria) and concomitant bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine	Decreased antioxidant defense, immunity, and protein synthesis
Calcium	Unknown	Dissolution, ionization, and absorption of calcium salts decrease under conditions of hypo-, achlorhydria	Osteopenia/Osteoporosis
Vitamin D	12.1%	Not determined	Secondary hyperparathyroidism, osteopenia/osteoporosis, decreased immunity, increased risk of autoimmune disease development